A TEXTBOOK 



ON 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING 



/ 

V 



International Correspondence Schools 
scranton, pa. 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING 

LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING 

THE FORMATION OF LETTERS 



4' 



SCRANTON 
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY 

A-2 



w\ 



JllGO 



1H£ LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Raceived 

JAN 10 1903 

Copyrignt Entry 
,^t<y.//-^/q 1^ 
cuss l^^ XXc, No. 

U- ^ h L 

COPY B. 



Copyright, 1902, by Internationat, Textbook Company. 



Copyright, 1899, by The Colliery Engineer Company, uuder the title of The Elements 
of Lettering and Sign Painting. 



Elements of Lettering: Copyright, 1899, by The Colliery Engineer Company. 
Lettering and Sign Painting: Copyright, 1899, by The Colliery Engineer Company. 
The Formation of Letters: Copyright, 1899, by The Colliery Engineer Company. 
Copyright, 1902, by International Textbook Company. 

All rights reserved. 



\V 



^ ■: 



PREFACE. 



This volume differs from the one previously sent to students 
of our Lettering and Sign Painting Course in that the plates, 
instead of being printed separately and placed in a portfolio, are 
now inserted on guards in'-theTolume itself. We have been 
induced to make this change by the fact that the plates as for- 
merly printed were very inconvenient to use for purposes of 
reference. In the first place, unless the plates were put back in 
the portfolio in exactly the same order they were taken out, it 
was necessary to search through the portfolio each time it was 
desired to refer to a plate. Again, the plates were liable to be 
mislaid and the edges were likely to become turned; the plates 
also became easily soiled. For these reasons and others we had 
new cuts made of these plates slightly smaller in size, had the 
text matter that was printed in connection with the plates reset 
and inserted in the volume under the title of The Formation of 
Letters. The plates were then inserted on guards and located 
in their proper places near the references to them. We think 
that the present arrangement will prove far more satisfactory 
than the old one, especially whenever the work is used as a book 
of reference. 

In addition to the Paper entitled The Formation of Letters there 
are also included in this volume two other Papers, one entitled 
Elements of Lettering, and the other Lettering and Sign Painting. 
The first. Elements of Lettering, contains the instruction neces- 
sary to enable the student to properly apply his knowledge of 
letters and their formation to suit every requirement, both in 
treatment and modification, and also in their various arrange- 
ment in all forms of inscription and combination designs. This 
Paper gives a complete education in the art of lettering in all its 
branches wherein a knowledge of color is not necessary. The 



iv PREFACE. 

second Paper, Lettering and Sign Painting, gives the student a 
complete knowledge of all tools, appliances, and materials used 
by the advanced sign painter. It includes also instruction in 
the use of the brush for all purposes, and the preparation, com- 
bination, and practical application of colors to all materials. 
It contains all the methods, processes, and formulas for producing 
letters on such surfaces as metal and glass by the use of acids, 
and also instruction for the preparation of all surfaces on which 
lettering is to be placed. 

The author of these Papers, Mr. C. J. Allen, has had a very 
wide experience in teaching the origin of letter formation and in 
teaching the art of lettering, and is a thorough master of the sub- 
ject in all its branches. Great care has been exercised in the 
selection of the plates containing the various styles of the 
alphabet. We feel confident that nothing equal to these plates 
has ever before been published. The utmost pains have been 
taken to give the student the true form of the various styles of 
letters shown on the plate. The Courses have been carefully 
arranged to meet the requirements of every one engaged in 
any business that demands a knowledge of letters and their 
construction. 

International Cobrespondence Schools. 



CONTENTS. 



Elements of Lettering. 

Introduction 

History of the Alphabet 

General Rules 

Mechanical and Freehand Lettering . 

Component Parts of a Letter 

Spacing of Letters 

Punctuation 

Rules for Punctuation 

Shading 

Letter-Face Lighting and Shading 

The Highlight 

Cutting In Letters 

Classification of Letters 

Ornamental Letters 

Grotesque Letters 

Illuminated Capitals 

Effects in Lettering 

Condensing, Elongating, Telescoping, and 

Interlacing 

Outlining and Filling In 

Designing 

Ribbons 

Panels 

Inscription Designing 

Stencil Patterns 

Purpose of Stencils 

Material for Stencils 

V 



Section. 



Page. 
1 
2 
.10 
12 
13 
14 
18 
19 
22 
25 
27 
27 
29 
29 
31 
32 
35 

35 
38 
39 
40 
42 
46 
48 
48 
49 



vi CONTENTS. 

Elements of Lettering. — Continued. Section. Page. 

Geometrical Figures 1 52 

Triangles 1 52 

Circles 1 53 

Ornamental Curves 1 54 

The Ellipse 1 55 

Modifications of the Fundamental Styles , 1 56 

Mechanical Lettering 1 62 

How the Work Should Be Sent .... 1 74 

Plates 1 75 

Lettering and Sign Painting. 

Introduction 2 1 

Practice and Material 2 2 

Tools Necessary 2 3 

General Tools and Appliances 2 3 

Brushes 2 4 

The T Square 2 6 

Position of Hands 2 6 

Striping 2 9 

Colors 2 10 

Classification of Colors 2 10 

Handling of Colors 2 12 

Harmony and Contrast 2 12 

Ground Finishes 2 13 

Smalting 2 13 

Variegated Grounds 2 15 

Preparation of Surfaces ....... 2 16 

Sizes for Gilding 2 IS 

Gilding Water 2 18 

Size for Oil Gilding 2 19 

Gilding . . . 2 21 

Gilding on Glass 2 21 

Gilding on Wood or Metal 2 23 

Pearl Filling and Etruscan Gilding ... 2 24 

Embossing 2 26 

Embossing on Brass Plates 2 26 

Embossing on Glass 2 29 



CONTENTS. 



vu 



Lettering and Sign Painting. — Continued. Section. 

Letter Shading 2 

Colors Used 2 

The Preparation of Colors 2 

Application to Various Materials .... 2 

Relief Letters 2 

Wood, Metal, and Glass 2 



Formation of Letters. 



Alphabets 
Plate, Title: 



Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate; 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate^ 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate, 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 



Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 
Title: 



Full Block 

Half Block 

Antique Half Block . . . 
Railroad Block . . . . 
Round Full Block . . . 

Egyptian 

Antique Egyptian 
Antique Egyptian (Light) . 
Antique Egyptian (Heavy) 
French Roman . . . . 
French Roman (Light) . 
French Roman (Heavy) 
Roman (New York) . . . 
Roman (Boston) . . . . 
Medieval Roman . . . . 
Lower- Case Roman . . 

German Text 

Church Text 

Gothic 

Spencerian Script . . . . 

Italic Script 

Renaissance 

Shippers' Box Marking . 

Old English 

Engrossing 

Architects' Pen Stroke . 
Draftsmen's Styles . . . 
Hebrew 



Page. 
30 
30 
32 
32 
34 
34 



1 
1 
6 
9 
10 
15 
17 
19 
21 
26 
30 
33 
37 
40 
43 
45 
48 
51 
57 
61 
67 
71 
73 
75 
78 
84 
87 
89 
93 



viii CONTENTS. 

Formation of Letters. — Continued. Section. Page. 

Plate, Title: Uncial Greek 3 95 

Plate, Title: Henry VII 3 98 

Plate, Title: 16th Century 3 100 

Plate, Title: Monograms 3 102 

Plate, Title: Indexes and Bands .... 3 104 

Plate, Title: Ornamentation 3 106 

Examination Questions. 



Elements of Lettering. 



IXTRODUCTIOK. 

1, Purpose of This Course. — It is the purpose of this 
course of instruction to combine the classical with the practical 
so as to meet the needs of all students desirous of studying the 
esthetic and antique, as well as the plain and simple, styles of 
lettering. The plates are therefore arranged and classified on a 
simple but progressive system, calculated to lead the student 
gradually from the plain and simple to the most difficult styles, 
but omitting from the course all such as are obsolete or not in 
common use. 

Before requiring the student to apply himself to a knowledge 
of the present forms and classifications of the letters of our 
alphabet, he should become familiar with their history and the 
primitive forms of writing. He should also note the important 
national changes that have caused a transition from one form 
into another, until our present advanced era has been reached 
with its great variety of styles, distinctively different in 
character one from another, and each arising from some 
important period in the world's history in which the funda- 
mental or parent style was closely allied to a corresponding 
style of architecture. 

In order that the student may derive the greatest benefit from 
this course in lettering, he should not rest content with merely 
reading this Instruction Paper carefully once or twice, but 
should study its contents carefully throughout his entire course. 
It is only by practice and steady progress in acquiring a knowl- 
edge of the styles and formation of letters that the real value 
and importance of much of the instruction given in this Paper 
can be rightly understood and its full meaning appreciated. 

n 

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 



2 ET.EMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

III8TORY OF THE ALPHABET. 

2. Classification. — The wonderful aeliicvements in the 
arts of i)rinting, photo-engraving, lithography, etc. have })een 
the means of transforming the letters of the alphahet into a 
variety of forms or styles, which may be classified under three 
general heads : Plain, Ornamental, and Grotesque. Tlie history 
of our alphabet and of the forms known as the fundamental 
styles will be found not only of interest but also of great profit 
to one who is to devote himself to the art of lettering. The 
degree of perfection attained in the alphabet, not only in 
phonetic value, but also in simplicity and completeness, makes 
it a monument of the intellectual advancement of the present 
day — a condition to which the people of all ages have contrib- 
uted — although the reader may never have considered its 
source nor the many changes necessary to its growth and per- 
fection. The twenty-six signs, or letters, that we call the 
alphabet are separated into two classes : those representing no 
syllabic sounds in themselves, which are called consonants ; and 
those possessing two or more sucli sounds, called vowels. The 
latter in some cases are scarcely more than a breath sound, but 
each has a clear phonetic value, and fills an important place in 
our written language. By means of other cliaracters placed 
above the vowels, every word may be written to express its 
proper sounds. We are, therefore, enjoying today the fruits of 
the achievements of the human intellect through forty centuries 
of development ; for, in tracing the origin of the alphab(!t and 
the signs that led to its construction, we are compelled to go 
back to the dispersion of the human race through a period of 
over four thousand years, each epoch of which fui'uishes inter- 
esting developments in the growth of our letters. It will be 
impossible in this short treatise to fully consider this interesting 
history and growth, or give more than a })assing glance at the 
w'orld's primitive history ; although in it is to be found the 
source of the forms whose transitions from one system of char- 
acters to another give us our present alphabet. Nor can we 
dwell even on the relation these characters bear to one another. 
The degree of intelligence attained in each period of human 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



history is marked by the progress made in the methods of 
writing, which enabled its people to record events, impart 
knowledge, and transmit messages to one another. 

3. Ideogi-ains. — The Scriptures inform us that when Baby- 
lon and Nineveh were built all people were of one language, and 
the similarity of the Babylonian, Egyptian, and Assyrian sign 
languages gives some evidence of this fact. The descendants of 
Noah are supposed to have occupied these localities after the 
dispersion : Shem, that of Babylon and Eastward ; Ham, North- 
eastern Africa ; and Japheth, Western Assyria and Asia Minor, 

Each system of writing began with rude pictures of objects, 
more or less conventional, which gradually became the repre- 
sentatives of Avords, afterwards becoming the symbols of letters, 
or elementary sounds. We can, therefore, trace the transition 
from the ideogram, or expression of thoughts by means of pic- 
tures, to the phonogram, or expression of sounds by means of 
drawn or written symbols. Many ideograms are in common 
use at the present day, which proves that the Egyptian method 
was not without some merit. For instance, the sign $ is derived 
from the monogram U. S. The barber's pole — the red stripe of 
which symbolizes a "blood-letter" (a custom of past ages) — 
the three balls used by the pawnbroker, the American flag, 
the sign per cent. (%), the algebraic signs, and many others 
are all ideograms. 

4. Cuneiform. Wi'Itiiig. — The letters of our alphabet are 
the outgrowth of the ancient Hebrew alphabet and Egyptian 
hieroglyphics (the earliest form of writing), as well as of the 
Assyrian cuneiform characters. In tracing to its origin the 
form of each letter, we are surprised at the marvelous trans- 
formations these characters have undergone before reaching 
the simplicity that marks their present construction. While 
alphabetic systems have become simplified, the Chinese system, 
on the other hand, which is not alphabetic, has grown more 
and more complicated, and affords an example of how a people, 
isolated for four thousand years from the rest of the world, 
were unable to advance beyond the ancient system of ideo- 
graphic writing. The Chinese system is evidently the outgrowth 



4 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

of the cuneiform characters, which are wedge-shaped, and are 
arranged in groups to express a thought. The simplicity of 
our alphabet system compared with the Chinese may be appre- 
ciated when we consider that a boy ten years old, in an Ameri- 
can school, has acquired the same facility in reading and 
writing English that would take a Chinese student twenty-five 
years to accomi)lish in the study of Chinese characters. 

5. Tlie Ai*al)ic and Roman Numerals. — Without a 
general knowledge of ancient history it is impossible to form a 
clear outline of the history of writing, as one is inseparable 
from the other. From the confusion of tongues to the exodus 
of the Israelites from Egypt, a period of several centuries, we 
know that the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa 
were largely peopled ; and, though Chinese legends point to 
periods much earlier than this, the system by which they have 
come to us, being based on object pictures, produces no evi- 
dence as to their reliability. The Hebrew writing, sui)posed 
by some authorities to be the outgrowth of the so-called Semitic 
writing, does not owe its origin to this early period ; for there 
is sufficient evidence to show that the Hebrew alphabet did not 
come into existence until later. In the middle of this Semitic 
period, however, occurs the birth of Ishmael, from whom the 
Arabian race is descended, and to this race we are indebted for 
our present numeral characters 1, 2, 3, etc. The system known 
as the Roman was in use much earlier, and probably .originated 
in ideographic writing. The digits I, II, III, IIII w^ere origi- 
nally pictures of the fingers ; the V was shown by the whole 
hand, the fingers collected and the thumb spread apart. The 
X was expressed by both hands together, each being in the 
position used to indicate the V. The increase or decrease of 
value was indicated by placing a digit before or after the V or 
X. This system is still in use for certain purposes, one of 
which is the numbering of the hours on tlie clock dial. 

G. The Hebrew Alpliabet. — The i)rogress and develop- 
ment of all systems of writing are marked by national changes, 
and, therefore, when entering on a second historical period of 
about a thousand years, beginning with the exodus from Egypt 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



and reaching to the captivity of Israel and Judah, we find a 
nation of at least 4,000,000 people leaving Egypt and afterward 
forming a most important element of the divisions of nations 
and one strongly influencing the many systems of writing. To 
this great people, it is believed, was given an alphabet, and a 
language in laws and commandments, embodying civil as well 
as ecclesiastical polity. The purity of this alphabet has 
remained to the present time, surviving thirty centuries, the 
only changes being the present Hebrew characters, which 
assume more of the square construction than the originals. 
From this nation also springs another system or alphabet — that 
of the Samaritans — but before considering this let us turn our 
attention to another country and people, the Phenicians. The 
Israelites occupying Palestine were neighbors of this aggressive 
and thrifty people, and were brought into harmonious relations 
with them. The chief cities of Phenicia, Tyre and Sidon, were, 
during the reign of Solomon, maritime centers of great activity. 
It is assumed, therefore, that the Greek alphabet came directly 
from the Hebrew and Phenician, while the Phenician in turn 
was evolved from the Assyrian, Egyptian, and Moabitish. 

7. The Samaritan Alphabet. — We find that the Samari- 
tan alphabet has Hebrew as a base, with a strong interspersion 
of Assyrian and Chaldaic. Israel, about the middle of this 
period, was divided into two kingdoms, the two tribes constitu- 
ting the kingdom of Judah and the ten tribes that of Israel. 
The latter, as well as the Egyptians and Phenicians, suf- 
fered severely from the Assyrian and Babylonian invasions. 
These powerful eastern empires took captive the ten tribes of 
Israel, thereby causing their complete downfall and loss of 
national identity. The Mosaic laws prescribed that the soul 
that did not observe certain ceremonies after eight days would 
be cut off from Israel ; the ten tribes failed to observe these 
ceremonies as a nation, and therefore lost their indentity in the 
Hebrew family. They returned to Samaria subsequently, how- 
ever, and held to a revised Pentateuch — hence the lost ten tribes 
of Israel and their relation to the Jews. Mention is made of 
this to assist the student in locating the origin of the Samaritan 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



alphal)et, which is so made up of others that little or no 
reference is iisnally made in regard to its origin, bearing as it 
does so close a resemblance to the primitive Hebrew. The 
only examples of the earliest alphabets are to be found on 
monuments or tabulated inscriptions, on coins, and on frag- 
ments of utensils. Among these the principal ones during this 
period are the Baal-Lebanon Bowl, 10th century B. C. ; the 




Moabite Stone, 9th century B. C. ; and the Siloam Inscription, 
7th century B. C. This period closes Avith the captivity of the 
remaining two tribes in Babylon 588 B. C. 

8. The PHenician Alphabet. — The Phenician, as previ- 
ously stated, is the source of our phonetic alphabet ; and the 
ascendency and decline of the Grecian empire and the establish- 
ment of the Roman marks another period, during which the 
alphabet characters attained their present development, as 
shown l)y the inscription on the Arch of Titus, built 70 A. D., 
a cut of which is shown in Fig. 1. In recapitulating what has 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 7 

tlius far been stated, we have satisfactory proof that our 
])honetic alphabet came from the Hebrew, l)ut descended 
through tlie Phenician branch. 

9. The alphabet characters have slowly evolved from 
hieroglyphic writings, first from syllabic signs, and these forms 
must have been developed from verbal phonograms. The 
verbal phonograms were adopted from ideograms, which could 
have originated only from picture writing. Surrounded by 
such advantages as the Hebrew and the Egyptian characters, 
and all other forms of writing, it is not surprising that the 
Phenicians should have constructed an alphabet of clear 
phonetic value, which afterward gave birth to the classic Greek. 
The name of every letter of the Hebrew has a significant 
meaning, while the Greek names, though similar, are meaning- 
less. For instance, the first four letters of the Hebrew and 
Greek alphabet are as follows : 

UEBREW. GREEK. 

Alej^h (ox) Alpha 

Beth (house) Beta 

Gimel (camel) Gamma 

Daleth (door) Delta 

10. The Greek Alpliabet. — Several centuries of the 
Hebrew period elapse before the Greek alphabet becomes an 
important factor in the formation of our alphabet, in fact not 
until after the fall of Greece as a universal empire. But as 
early as 880 B. C. there came with the birth of the Greek 
alphabet a most intellectual conception of literature, art, and 
architecture, of which subsequently the Latins were only 
imitators. 

1 1 . Tlie Ijatin Alphabet. — Although the Greek alphabet 
still remains, evolution continues as long as the imperfect exists, 
and with the fourth universal empire comes the Latin alphabet. 
As the Roman empire was composed of almost the entire 
civilized world, their alphabet formed the base, or was the 
mother of all modern styles of writing. The Roman alphabet 



10 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 



16. Modem Styles. — Of the styles of more recent date, 
the style known as Rund-Schrift (round- writing), which is an 
adaptation of the German Renaissance, was the invention of a 
German. Aside from this we name with much pride several 
styles known the world over as American writing ; these are 
the Full Block, Half Block, both plain and antique, Railroad 
Block, Round Full Block, Spencerian Script, and Shippers' Box 
Marking. These styles are used chiefly by letterers, while the 
varieties in type which are of purely American origin are so 
numerous that we would not attempt to classify or name them. 
Their form and style are peculiarly identified with printing, 
and are seldom if ever used by letterers ; while to the art of 
printing under its many heads is due all progress made in the 
invention of styles of writing since the 15th century. 



GENERAL RULES. 

17. The few general rules following are very important to 
the student, and it is necessary, therefore, that they should be 
carefully observed and followed. 

L Do not attempt any form or style of letter other than the 
style furnished for each lesson. 

2. Do not allow the eye to dwell on that which is inartistic ; 
for, just as truly as " evil associations corrupt good manners," 
just so surely does association of the eye with that which is out 
of proportion, distorted, or irregular, leave an impression which 
is lasting in its effect on, and by no means easy to dispel from, 
the mind. When the student has advanced to the study of 
inscription designing and ornamentation, he will better appre- 
ciate the importance of this advice. 

3. Do not become discouraged if you do not make as rapid 
progress as you should like to. The assertion is often made 
that "it is not possible for one to become a master of an art 
or profession, without a natural talent for it " ; this may be true 
along some lines, but it is not true in regard to lettering, 
especially if behind the effort there is persistent will power and 
a patient determination to succeed. Concentration of thought 
and constant practice must of necessity follow these qualities. 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 11 

4. Give as much time to practice as possible ; do not be 
satisfied to make a letter several times only, but practice each 
letter until you have mastered it, and have learned perfectly 
all the rules governing its construction in every characteristic 
line and stroke. 

5. Be sure you thoroughly understand all of the instruction 
pertaining to each plate before beginning to practice. Study 
the instructions carefully with the j^late before you. 

Strive to excel ; despise mediocrity. 
The advantages offered in this course should induce every 
student to aim above a general knowledge of letters only, and 
to seek to attain a position equal to that occupied by the few 
that fully understand the many forms of alphabetic characters 
and all their apj)lications. 

18. Materials Required. — When practicing in the eve- 
ning, use a good steady light, and place this directly in the 
rear of the table on which you are working, and from 12 to 18 
inches above the work, while the eyes should always be pro- 
tected from it by means of an eye shade. The student will 
need the following materials : 

Drawing instruments 1 velvet rubber; 1 Faber's im- 

Drawing board, 16 in. X 21 in. proved ink eraser 

T square, 22.} inches | doz. sheets Whatman's drawing 

2 triangles, 45° and 60° paper, 12 in. X 19 in. ; i royal 

1 scale size 

^ doz. thumbtacks 2 red sable brushes, Nos. 3 and 4 

Drawing pencil 1 pad ruled paper, 2 in. X 7 in. 

l|oz. bottle waterproof drawing ink 

19. Draftsmen and other students interested in a similar 
class of work will find these tools sufficient for practice and 
specimen work. But for the benefit of the students that wish 
to apply a knowledge of lettering to sign painting we would 
advise that the practice work be done on cardboard or Manila 
pattern paper, using a camel' s-hair brush, and card black, the 
preparation of which will be given hereafter. By this process 
the letters can be made any size, but the plate sent in for 
correction must invariably be 8|- in. X 15 in., inside the border 
lines, which are If inches from the edge of the paper. 



12 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. ij 1 



DKAWINU TJIE LETTERS. 



MECHANICAL AIS^D FREEHAND LETTERING. 

20. Iiistrxmieiital and J'reehand Drawing Defi- 
nitions. — Drawing is the art of representing objects on a 
convenient surface, such as paper, by means of lines or colors, 
or both. The representation of an object in this manner is 
called a drawing. If the pencil, brush, pen, or marker by 
which a drawing is made, is guided wholly or partly by instru- 
ments, as, for example, by a straightedge or by compasses, the 
drawing is called an mstnmiental or mechanical drawing. If no 
instruments are used, the lines drawn by the free hand, and all 
dimensions laid off by eye only, the drawing is called a free- 
hand drawing. A preliminary rough or unfinished drawing 
is usually called a sketch. 

21. Purpose of a DraAving. — The purpose of a drawing 
is either to assist the memory or to convey to others an idea of 
the shape, size, combination, form, color, or appearance of some 
object. Drawings also aid us in perfecting ideas Avhen we are 
designing or inventing. The practice of freehand drawing 
trains l)oth the hand and the eye. It enables one to estimate 
distances and lay them off on a drawing correctly, and to com- 
pare the relative sizes of angles, lines, and figures in general. 
It thus trains the hand to draw quicker and better with instru- 
ments. The al)ility to draw well freehand is one of the most 
useful of accomplishments. 

22. There are but two plates or styles in this course that 
are in the true sense mechanical styles, that is, made exclusively 
with the aid of a straightedge and other instruments. These 
are the Full-l^lock Plate and the Half-Block Plate. The 
others are made up of straight lines and curves. These curves, 
though slight in many cases, are all drawn by the free use of 
the hand, and therefore, so long as freehand drawing enters into 
their construction, we have chosen to classify them under this 
head. We advise the use of the straightedge, however, in 



§ 1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 13 

making all straight lines, whether in mechanical or freehand 
styles, but do not recommend the use of the compasses in 
making curves in freehand letter styles, unless a perfect circle 
is required. 

COMPOIiTENT PARTS OF A I.ETTEK. 

23. stroke. — The stroke is the term applied to the width 
between the outlines forming the letter ; when applied to 
letters possessing more than one width between its outlines, it 
always refers to the greatest width, and usually the vertical 
portion of the letter, as distinguished from the "fine line." 

24. Fine liine. — The fine line is the line connecting the 
strokes or lines attached to them, forming a part of the letter, 
and is usually a horizontal line. 

25. Spur. — The spur is a small projection from the 
extremity of a letter, and exists in several varieties, according 
to the style of letter on which it is used. 

26. Face. — The face of a letter usually includes all the 
space forming a rectangle enclosing the extremities of the 
letter, but is often applied to the surface within the outline 
of the letter. 

27. Shade. — This term is used to describe the treatment 
or finish of a letter, and is applied to a letter to give it the 
appearance of relief from the background ; also to cause one 
part of the stroke to appear projected or depressed from 
the surface. 

28. Block. — This is similar to the shade in effect, and is 
used to give a letter thickness, or, as its name expresses, to give 
it a solid block effect, in which case the shade also is sometimes 
used beyond the block in the form of a natural shadow. 

29. Outline. — The outHne of a letter is the line that 
forms the letter, leaving the body of the stroke open. 

30. AVidth. — The width of letters always applies to the 
space occupied between the vertical lines to the extreme right 
and left, and never refers to the height. 



14 ELEMENTS OF LETTERIXG. §1 

31. Backgrotind. — The background is the surface on 
which the lettering is placed ; it is also sometimes called the 
ground, or field. 

32. Condensing. — Condensing is a term applied to the 
closer spacing of the letters, or to making them narrower than 
normal width. 

33. Elongating. — Elongating is the term applied when 
the letters are drawn out to a greater width than the normal. 
This term should not be confused with the appearance of a con- 
densed letter, Avith the relation of its height to its width. 

34. Cynia. — The cyma is a character emploj^ed to equalize 
the spacing of irregular letters by placing it where the space is 
open and requires something more than the plain letter to 
make the word appear solid. This character derives its name 
from the Greek, its undulating form resembling a wave. The 
cyma is usually attached to the letters A, L, INI, "\V, etc. ; it is 
used in but few styles of lettering, while in some styles it forma 
a part of the letter itself. 

SPACING OF LETTERS. 

35. Importance of Spacing. — Next in importance to 
the formation of letters stands the art of arranging them in 
words in a way calculated to make the word not only legible 
but symmetrical ; this is called spacing. Nothing will destroy 
the harmony of a line of perfectly formed letters more effect- 
ively than a disregard of this art. Aside from a few general 
rules, the letterer must depend on his own good judgment, and 
cultivate the ability to j^roportion all spaces according to the 
combinations of letters. Irregular combinations occur in many 
ways, but true proportion must always reign in a word accu- 
rately spaced, so that its regularity is apparent to the eye at a 
glance. To accomplish this, special attention must be given to 
the following rules : 

3G. Correct and Incorrect Spacing. — Make tlio inter- 
spacings equal to one another, or as nearly so as possible. To 
do this may require the shortening of some extended letters, 
and the spreading apart of letters having vertical or parallel 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 15 

lines. This is shown by Figs. 2 and 3, in which the right and 
the wrong spacing can be seen. The L in Fig. 2 is shortened a 
full stroke in width instead of one-half stroke, which is the 
normal width of the letter ; and the space between ^he A and 
the W is about one-half the width of the letter A at its base. 
At the top of the A is shown the cyma used to relieve the space 
which cannot be equalized. The cyma is also often used in a 

CAW LAW 

Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 

vertical position on the L, the point almost resting on the lower 
right-hand spur. Fig. 3 shows the effect of the rule followed by 
some letterers, who allow the same space between the extremities 
of all letters, and make no allowance for unequal-sized inter- 
spaces. The parallel strokes of the A and the W are the same 
distance apart as the L and the A, leaving theL full width. 
Many such combinations occur, and unless we observe this 
rule we may expect no better effects than in Fig. 3. Two 
projecting letters, either L's or T's, often occur together, as 
in such words as "millinery," "butter," etc., and at the 
same time in connection with letters that are full face or 
occupying full width top and bottom, as shown in Fig. 4. In 
such cases the L should be made the width of the stroke 

ILLN UTTEI 

Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 

narrower than the full-face letters, and the spaces between the 
latter and the right-hand letters next to them should be one- 
half the width of the stroke. There should be a space of the 
full width of the stroke between parallel-stroke letters, as the I 
and the L. In Fig. 5 the T's are shortened only one-half the 
width of the stroke, allowing the same space between them and 
the letters on each side as allowed in Fig. 4 between the end of 



IG 



Er.KMENTS OI^^ JJCrTERrNG. 



§1 



11h> ri-^'lit T; Mild ilit> sirokt' of tlio N. Tlio loiters, therefore, 
with wliich we .shnll exix'riciicc {\\r most (lidicuHj'' in spiuuiig, 
jiro (lie slMiitinji-slroko loiters A, 1\, \\ W, and Y and the pro- 
j(>etin!j; letters V, J, T;, and 'l\ 

JJT. I'lill l?1o('k jhkI IkOiMiiii. — ^^'hen spaeing such 
styles as llu^ l''ull JUock and lloiuan •>]>servo tho following 
rules : ^^'hon two letters liaviiii;- spurs eoine together, as 




leave <ho width (»f lh(> slrok(> ()f the lott(>r rx^tweiMi tho spurs. 
Wlioii a. sj'ur and a. plain-stroke letter eonie together, as 



HO 



leave 1^, width of slrok(> l)elweeu hody or stroke of letters. 
\\'hen two spurli>ss letters, as 




conu^ logtiher, leavt> space of on(> stroke hctween tluMU. Slant- 
ing-stroke h>ttiTs, sut'h as the W and Ihe Y, leave (he half-stroko 
ppaee l)(>(w(>en the spurs, and tlu; same space if tho next letter 
be a si)urless letter. 

88. I'^yptinii, llnir Klock, and 1 rtMicli lloinan. — Tho 

Egyptian, Half lUoi'k, and I'^nneh IJonian ean he spaced hy the 
following ruli^s : Leave widtli of stroke hetwec^n all ]>arallel- 
stroke lelliM's, and one-half this width hetween proj(H'ting letters. 
Between round h'tters eoining together on roundeil sides as 



NOC 



leave \ stroke, lu-tween words never allow less than the space 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 17 

of a full-sized letter, including spurs ; and, if possible, leave 
1|- spaces. Never allow letters to touch each other, except 
shaded letters, and not then unless it is unavoidable. Two 
round letters corning together, such as 



00 



in condensed styles, having no spurs, may be allowed to almost 
touch each other without having the effect of doing so ; while 
sucli letters as 



JE 



produce the effect of being closer together than they really are. 

.'50. Care must always be exercised in selecting a style of 
letter to suit a space as well as a word. The placing of a word 
in a given space not appropriate to it will cause the letters to 
be either so separated by spaces or so condensed for want of 
space as to make them unsightly and difficult to read. Under 
the heading of "Inscription Designing," the subject of the 

SENATE 



Fi',. <:. 



selection of styles to meet all requirement is fully treated. 
The appearance of the spacing of letters is similar to that of a 
company of soldiers. If a portion of the company be sej^arated 
by a space greater than the manual prescribes, it has the 
appearance of a separate detachment and is noticeable at a 
glance. In the same manner, if a word is spaced jjroperly 
throughout with but one exception, it has the appearance of 
two words. ]"or examph-, take the word ,Serude shown in 
Fig. C, where the space between the N and the A gives it the 
effect of two words. 



18 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



PUKCTUATION. 

40. There is seldom sufficient attention paid to this impor- 
tant subject among letterers, as may be observed on the signs 
on almost any public street. 

41. Origin of the Apostrophe. — The apostrophe is fre- 
quently misplaced in the plural possessive case. To fully 
understand the rule governing the possessive case and the 
origin of the mark used to denote possession, we should first 
know that the apostrophe is used to indicate that something 
has been omitted. If we should look on the fly leaf of some 
very old book, we would see the name of the owner, "John 
Smith," and underneath, the words "his book," which was 
the early form of expressing the possessive. Later, it became a 
custom to contract the name and article possessed — thus, 
''John Smith's book" — and to insert the apostrophe to indi- 
cate that the ' ' his ' ' was omitted. By bearing in mind this 
simple custom, one can always locate the proper place for the 
apostrophe, according to the location of the pronoun. To 
further illustrate, take, for example, the words "men's and 
boys' clothing." To use the method of our ancestors we 
would express it, "men, their clothing, and boys, their cloth- 
ing." According to the rule, the apostrophe and final "s" 
should be substituted for the pronoun, making the phrase read 
"men's and boys' clothing." Thus, the letter "s" would not 
be necessary after the apostrophe in the word "men's," as the 
pronoun "their," which has no final "s," is used; but for 
euphony, or to obviate harshness of sound, the "s" is often 
added after many words, and alao omitted from words ending 
with " s " for the same reason. 

42. The Coniiiia. — The comma is frequently used where 
the period is the mark required. For instance, the words 
"John Smith. Law Office." make two complete and inde- 
pendent statements, and each should be terminated by a 
period. However, if the words used were "John Smith, 
Lawyer." the case Avould have been different, as there is but 
one statement, which should be terminated by the period. 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 19 



RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 

43. Period. — The period is put at the end of every 
word, phrase, or sentence that is complete by itself, and 
not interrogative or exclamatory. It is also placed after 
all abbreviations. 

Quit yourselves like men. The M. D. addressed his letter to James 
Howard, LL. D. 

0' 

44. Colon. — The colon is an intermediate point between 
the semicolon and the period, and is used as follows : 

1. After words that promise a series or statement of some- 
thing important. 

His accomplishments, he said, were not many : a stout heart, a firm 
resolve, and — fifty cents. 

2. Before an important remark added to a sentence, espe- 
cially when it sums up the sentence, or presents the meaning 
in another form. 

Avoid evil doers : in such society an honest man may become 
ashamed of himself. 

45. The Semicolon. — The semicolon is used to separate 
clauses that are themselves divided by the comma, or that 
require a point greater than a comma and less than a colon ; or 
to separate the parts of a loose series. 

He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors ; affable, not familiar, to 
equals ; and kind, but not condescending or supercilious, to inferiors. 

46. Comma. — The comma is the most frequently used of 
all the punctuation marks. The chief purposes for which it is 
used are the following : 

1. To separate the terms of a closely related series, or two 
such terms when the connective is omitted. 

Hedges, groves, gardens. 

It was a dark, desolate region. 

2. To separate terms that are contrasted or otherwise dis- 
tinguished, and terms of which a part in one might be referred 
improperly to the other. 

He is poor, but honest. 



20 ELEMENTS 01^^ LETTERING. §1 

H. To set off a word, phrase, or clause that is parenthetic, or 
that comes between other parts and breaks their connection. 
You will tluMi, liowevor, be in no bcltor condition. 

4. To set off ;i modifying word, phrase, or clause that is not 
closely connected with what it niodihes, or that is removed from 
it by inversion. 

Bcliold the emblem of thy state in (lowers, which bloom and die. By 
An\ericans genenilly, tlu^ hero of the lUittle of ]\lanihi l>ay is beloved. 

T). To set off words or ]»lu-ases used inde})endently or 
absolutely. 

Iviwtalfo, give me what is mine, and that right quickly. 

(). To separate the i)redicate from its subject, when the 
subject is very long, and has a clause, or consists of punctu- 
ated parts. 

The fact that he is allowed to go luipunished, makes him more 
insolent than ever. 

7. To separate clauses that are neither very closely nor very 
loosely connected. 

There mountains rise, and circling rivers How. 

8. Sliort simple sentences or clauses seldom require a point 
within them ; and phrases or chaises that stand in close connec- 
tion Avith that on which they depend seldom require a point 
before them. 

Tell me when it was that you saw him after he returned. 

47. Interi'ojifation Point. — The interrogation point is 
placed after every complete direct question, whether it forms a 
complete sentence or only a part of a sentence. 

AVhat mean'st thou by that? ]\Iend me, thou saucy fellow? 

— Julius Civmr. 

48. Exclamation l*oint. — The exclamation point is 
]>]a(H'd after a word, jthrase, clause, or sentence that indicates 
great suri)rise, grief, joy, or other emotion in the speaker. 

AVoe unto thee, Cliora/in ! Woe unto thee, P>ethsaida ! 

41). J)asli. — The dash is chielly used for the following 
purposes : 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 21 

L To show omission caused by interruption. 
Cdsnins. Yet I fear him : 

For in the ingrafted love he bears to 
Cjesar — 
Brutus. Alas I good Cassius, do not think of him. 

2. To show emphasis or suppressed feeling, or to show an 
unexpected turn in thouglit or style. 

Heaven gives to its favorites — early death. 

3. To set off a parenthetical phrase, especially when 
emphatic or when there are other points within it. 

To render the Constitution perpetual — which God grant it may be — 
it is necessary tliat its benefits should be i^ractically felt by all parts of 
the country. — D. Webster. 

4. Before echoes, or where the words "that is" or 
"namely" are understood. 

The four greatest names in English poetry are almost tlie first we 
come to — Chaucer, Spencer, Shakespeare, and Milton. 

50. Parenthesis. — The parenthesis is used to enclose 
some incidental remark or explanation that breaks the regular 
construction of the sentence and can be omitted without injur- 
ing the grammatical sense. 

Know then this truth (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below. — Pojic. 

51. Quotation Marks. — Quotation marks are used to 
enclose words taken from the saying or writing of another person. 

The doctor made the stige remark, " while there's life, there's hope." 

52. Apostroi>he. — The apostrophe is used to denote the 
omission of one or more letters. 

'Tis pleasant, sure, to see one's name in print ; 
A book's a book, although there's nothing in 't. 

— Oiatierton. 

53. Hyphen. — The hyphen (-) is used (1) at the close 
of a sylla))le that ends a line when the remaining part of the 
word must be carried to the next line ; (2) to join the parts of 
compound words. 



22 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

54. J)itto Marks. — The ditto marks (") are used to avoid 
the repetition of the word or expression directly above them. 

55. Underscore. — The underscore is a line drawn under 
words in manuscript or copy to give them special emphasis, 
showing that they are to be printed in Italic or capitals, one 
line denoting Italic, two lines denoting small capitals, and three 
lines large capitals. 

SHADING. 

56. Shading on tlie Left Side. — Shading is used to 
cause the letter to appear in relief, and thereby take away the 
flat or plain appearance. Shading may be placed on the top, 
bottom, or either side of a letter, but it should at first always 
be placed on the bottom and left side ; as, for several reasons, 
it is best not to try to shade a letter on the right side until the 
student is familiar with the left, as he will use this side for all 
practical purposes. The reasons for giving this side the prefer- 
ence are : (1) Regularity and symmetry of the shade occurs 






Fig. 7. Fig. S. 

in more of the letters when shaded on the left side, such as the 
S, E, C, R, etc. Fig. 7 illustrates this advantage, and shows the 
single stroke on the left at (a), and the broken shade from the 
stroke on the right side at (b). (2) By shading to the left, 
the letterer can accomplish more in a given length of time, and 
produce a better effect in his work when finished. (3) The 
majority of strokes in shading to the left are drawn towards 
the letterer, while in shading on the right the brush is pushed 
to the right, which in itself is a strong argument in favor 
of the former. 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERINC4. 



23 



57. Shading should always be executed on the assumption 
that the light falls on the letter at an angle of 45°. This 
principle can best be shown by reference to Fig. 8. The maxi- 
mum width of the shade occurs at a, a, midway betAveen the two 
lines b, b, and then diminishes to lines 6, h, where it is com- 
pleted. The tendency of the average letterer is to give too much 
thickness where shade begins or finishes. All letters must be 
shaded on the same angle at every point, and, after practice, 
this angle becomes as well established with the letterer as the 
horizontal or vertical lines. Every characteristic point of 
the letter must be shown in the shade, as at a, Fig. 9, and all 





Fig. 10. 

must be of equal width in all letters except the round charac- 
ters, whereon the shade reaches this width only at the maxi- 
mum point of thickness in the letter. 

58. Block Shade. — There are many methods of obtain- 
ing beautiful effects in shading, which will be considered sepa- 
rately. The block shade, as its name indicates, consists of the 
effect of making the letter appear to have thickness. This is 
done by the use of two shades, the dark, or stronger, one being 
used underneath all horizontal strokes, and the lighter tint on 
the side of all vertical strokes. The block shade can be placed 
on the top or right side of the letter, in which case the block, 
as well as the letter itself, is shaded as shown in Fig. 10. Here 
the shade has below and to the left of the letter the appearance 
of a cast shadow. 

59. Cast Shado^v. — The cast shadow is also used in con- 
nection with heavy-stroke letters, block shading, etc. , giving the 



24 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



letter the appearance of standing upright, either on a level or 
on a slanting surface. The top of the shade is on a line about 
one-fifth of the height of the letter below the top. The shade 
is made on an angle of 30° to the left, the point resting on the 





Fig. 11. 

lower left corner of the letter, as in Fig. 11, where (a) shows 
the letter with a block shade and cast shadow, and (6) shows 
the simple outlined letter and cast shadow. The shade is 
sometimes used by duplicating the letter in the form of a 
shadow cast on the background, one-fifth of the height of the 
letter below the top, and on the same angle (45°) as the 
regular shade, as shown in Fig. 12, 

60. Relief Shade. — Relief shade is obtained by leaving a 
space between the letter and the shade on the same angle as 




Fig. 12. 



Fig. 13. 



the shade, as shown in Fig. 13, making the space and shade of 
uniform width. When used in connection with block shade, 
it is often of the nature of the natural shade, and is added to 
the block shading without any line or space between. The 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



25 



relief shade when used as a natural shade on a white or tinted 
ground is made to represent the strength of the shadow cast 
from an object on the ground on which the letters are placed. 
This shade is produced with the pen by means of lines, but 
more effectively by the brush and transparent color. 



LETTER-FACE EIGHTIIN^G AND SHADING. 

61. Importance of Subject. — The treatment of the face 
of the letter is a very important consideration. The letterer 
often finds himself confronted with a line of extremel}' plain let- 
tering that, even after it is shaded, remains flat and unsatis- 
factory. This effect can sometimes be overcome by the addition 
of lights and shades placed directly on the letter face itself. 
The face of the letter may be variegated or blended from a light 
to a dark shade, in which case a sharp outline must surround 
the entire letter, as shown in Fig. 14. Lighting and shading 



IZ31 , 







Fig. 14. 



Fig. 15. 



Fig. 16. 



are used with best results on heavy-faced letters, as all treat- 
ment of the face of a letter by shading has the tendency to 
considerably reduce the apparent width of the stroke. 

62. Effects Produced. — Another effect is produced by 
running bars of color across the center of the letter, and dimin- 
ishing these bars in width to a point midway from center to top 
and bottom, as in Fig. 15. Diminishing circles are also used on 
letters of lighter face, such as the Roman, and can be made to 
occupy the entire face, or, as is shown in Fig. 16, terminating at 
a given point, which must be regularly observed throughout the 
line of letters. 



2G 



ELEMENTS OP LETTERING. 



§1 



63. Heavy Higlilig-lit. — The heavy highhght is used in 
the treatment of the face of the letter by making the upper half 
of the letter a uniform tint, either by lining, as shown in 
Fig. 17, or with colors. The darker shade b is placed on the 
low'er half of the letter, allowing a highlight on this equal in 
strength to «, or the upper half. The highlight c on the upper 
half of the letter is left white. By a combination of the shades 
of colors many beautiful effects can be produced by this means, 
using such colors for a as blue, green, gray, or gold color, the 
last of which combines with sienna for the lower portion, and 
with cream color for the upper highlight. Blue or green when 
used should have tint and shade of the same color. 

64. Beveled Sliadiug. — Shading on the face of a letter to 
represent a beveled appearance is another treatment that gives 
a line of lettering a finished and pleasing effect. In this 




^ 



^ 



Fig. 17. 



Fig. 18. 



process it is necessar}^ only to observe the rules of light and 
phadow, as shown in Fig. 18, by shading the letter on the left 
and bottom sides from a line drawn through the center of the 
face of the letter. This form of shading is often used on a 
gold or silver letter by the use of transparent colors such as 
varnish stained with asphaltum, which is used on gold, and 
varnish darkened with lampl)lack is used on silver letters. 
There are many other methods of treating the face of letters by 
the use of ornament, whereby it loses its identity as a plain 
and becomes an ornamented letter. 



ELEMENTS OP LETTERING. 



27 



THE HIGHI.IGHT. 

65. As its name indicates, the highlight is used to illumi- 
nate or light up a letter, which it does with wonderful effect. 
The highlight is placed on the edge of the letter, opposite the 
shade, or on the right and top of the strokes. It is always a 
fine line of either gold, silver, white, or cream, according to the 
color of the letter on which it is to be placed. If the letter is a 
colored letter, gold or silver can be used. If the letter is gold, 
nothing will serve the purpose of a highlight so well as cream 
or white. On silver or aluminum, white only can be used. 
To be most effectual this highlight must be a fine, even line. 
The heavy highlight is used in letter-face lighting and shading, 
and is explained under that head. 



CUTTII^G IN LETTERS. 

66. Uses of Cut-in Jjettei-s. — This term is applied to 
that style of treatment wherein the letters are drawn in outline, 
and the background is filled in around them. In inscription 
designing this method is resorted to frequently, in order to 




Fig. 19. 

break the monotony of several lines of plain lettering. The 
insertion of a panel or ribbon, on which the letters are " cut in," 
provides a colored background, against which the letters are 
outlined, allowing the same color for the letters as the main 
ground of the inscription design, as shown in Fig. 19. The 
color of the panel and background will govern very largely the 
character of letter to be cut in. If tlie general ground is white 
or any light color, and the cutting-in, or outline, color is very 
dark, a heavy-faced letter may be used without causing any 



28 



ELEMENTS OP LETTERING. 



appearance of clumsiness or ill proportion. But should the 
letters be in gold, a much lighter-faced letter Avould be neces- 
sary, as the effect of the gold luster is to make the letter appear 
larger than it actually is. A very fine line of gold on a black 
ground can l)e readily distinguished even at a great distance, 



/lA^ 



'/> 



Fig. 20. 

and a white letter on a blue ground can be read at a greater 
distance than any other combination of colors. 

67. Points to be Observed. — In the practice of cutting 
in letters the student should begin on the plainer styles, such as 
the Full Block, Half Block, etc., before endeavoring to execute 
the Roman or Script. Fig. 19 shows the letters in outline, 
and also with the background filled in. In order to insure 
uniformity of Avidth in the horizontal elements of the letters, 
faint lines may be drawn through the entire word by means of 
a thread or string charged with charcoal, chalk, or other material 
that aftei'wards may be readily dusted off. Cut-in letters may 





Fig. 21. 



Fig. 22. 



usually be permitted to stand closer than other styles of work, 
as they are seldom shaded, though when they are shaded, the 
regular spacing should be used. 



68. IrregTilar-Sxirface Ijetteriiig. — ^Miere letters are 
cut in on an irregular surface, such as a ribbon, as in Fig. 20, 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



29 



they must be maintained at a uniform angle and not changed 
to suit the angle of the ribbon, as at a. The importance of this 
will be considered more fully later on, but its connection with 
the subject now under discussion must not be overlooked. 
When letters are cut in on an inclined panel or ribbon the let- 
ters should be maintained in a vertical position, as in Fig. 21, 
or perpendicular to the lines of the panel, as in Fig. 22. 



CliASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. 




ORNAMENTAL. LETTERS. 

69. Scope of the Subject. — The plain letters include all 

alphabets in which no line 

or curve enters that is not 

absolutely necessary to 

show their form or outline ; 

a line thus added may 

place them among the orna- 
mental letters. Although 

it will be impossible to go 

over the entire ground 

covered by this subject, 

as there are endless vari- 
eties of ornamental letters, 

the styles found to be most essential will be considered. There 

are many letters into which 
ornamental construction 
enters but slightly, while 
others are composed en- 
tirely of ornamental forms. 
The ornamental letters of 
most value to the student 
are those on the face of 
which the ornament ap- 
^^^- 2*- pears, either in the form 

of relief scrolls, geometrical figures, or designs in arabesque. 



Fig. 23. 




r^ ^=^"=^ 



SG 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



,^^ 



70. Orimiuoiitiil l\)riii8. — Letters classitied us ornaiuon- 
tiil are of so great a variety that such as are used in connect iou 

with the shade to pnxUico 
a hent or rounded efYect, as 
shown in Figs. 23-24, might 
bo classed with this style. 
Fig. 28 shows the ground 
to he a plane surface and 
the letter bent or warped, 
while Fig. 24 shows the 
letter to be perfectly 
straight, and fastened with 
screws, while the ground has the etJect of being bent or warped. 

71. A letter that in itself is iierfectly plain but surrounded 
by ornamentation, as shown in Fig. 25, is called an orna- 





FiG. -26. 

iniutal h'tter also, though as a niatter of fact the letter itself 
may be perfectly plain. 

72. Other Forms. — Other ornamental forms are as fol- 
lows : The relief-ornament letters 
Bhown in Fig. 2G can be made in 
various ways. The Avhole form 
of the letter may be treated in 
this manner, as at (a^, or by 
simply suggesting it in the middle 
or edge of the letter, as in (6), 
(c), and (d). A letter may be 
plain, so far as its face is concerned, l)ut on account of its 




Fig. 27. 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



31 



form and construction it may be classified as ornamental, 
as shown in Fig. 27. 

There are many forms of designs used in letter- face orna- 
mentation, either filigree work, geometrical designs, or a com- 




bination of both. In Fig. 28 are shown three letters of the 
face-ornament class, the one at (a) l)eing decorated with filigree 
work, while (b) shows a geometrical design, and (c) simply 
the cross-line shading. 



GROTESQUE LETTERS. 

73. All letters, as previously stated (Art. 2), are either 
plain, ornamental, or grotesque. The first two classes follow in 
their outline construction the forms of the fundamental styles 
and their many variations, but this tliird class is entirely 
different. The grotesque letters have no recognized or classical 
form, such as would place them among 
the styles of the alphabet, but are made 
by using natural objects, which are arranged 
so as to conform to any regular or irregular 
shape that will cause them to represent a 
letter, and any form, therefore, is allowable 
so long as the letter may be recognized. 
To accomplish this, objects such as a 
human figure, a piece of rope or ribbon, 
broken boards, leaves, vines, and trunk of tlie tree, are used. 

Of the three latter forms, the rustic letters are made. The 
leaves, tendrils, stump, and trunk of the tree form the material 
used for an entire alphabet, one letter of which is shown in 
Fig. 29. These letters can be made very artistic, and show 




Fig. 29. 



32 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



1 



great skill in their arrangement. And, while they may be 
pleasing to the eye, they are of no practical importance to the 
student in the study of the forms of the letters, as their pro- 
portions are purely arbitrary. Fig. 30 shows the forms of 




Fig. 30. 

some of the grotesque letters, in which ((/) is formed by a 
human figure, (h) by broken boards, and (c) with a piece of 
rope. Any alphabet may be constructed of these forms as the 
fancy of any artist may dictate, even though he may be 
ignorant of the true form or proportion of the simplest style 
of the alphaliet. 



ILLUMrNATED CAPITAI.S. 

74. History and General Use. — The monks of the 
Middle Ages were the first to make use of this art, many 
specimens of which would indicate that they must have spent 
days in designing and executing a single letter. In treating 
this subject here, our purpose is simply to call attention to the 
most simplified forms of illuminating, especially those forms 
designed for the use of the average letterer. The practical use 
of this art is now confined to lithographing, engrossing, card 
work, and ecclesiastical decorations. The printing and litho- 
graphing artists have displayed wonderful skill in recent years 
in illuminated work, especially on show-bill designs. The use 
of colors to light up the capital letter gives a surprising effect 
to a complete line of lettering, and is done by a simple combi- 
nation of designs of most harmonious colors with the letter 
executed, and by using colors of striking contrast to the tints 
used to form the background. Such colors as can be com- 
bined to give a brilliant effect are used in the form of a plaque, 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



33 



part panel or both, on which the letter is brought out most con- 
spicuously, as shown in Fig. 31. The illumination practiced 
by engrossers is usually of such a nature as to produce a 
finished and pleasing effect without resorting to colors. There 
are many ways by which this can be accomplished. One 
method is simply by the use of a pen and black ink, as shown 
in Fig. 32, outlining the letter first, then making the orna- 




FiG. 31. 



mentation surrounding it conform to any desired design, 
thereby giving the letter prominence. Great care should be 
taken that the ornamentation is not made more pronounced 
than the letter, but rather that the former is used as a means to 
bring out or illuminate the letter. 

75. Card AYork. — For card work, the illuminating of capi- 
tals gives tone and finish, and relieves a show card of extreme 



34 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



1 



plainness. For practical purposes, such as attractive adver- 
tising cards, banners, etc., the illuminating of capitals willbe 
found to hold an important place, and is coming into favor and 

more general use. There are also 
many forms and designs employed 
as a panel, on which illuminated 
capitals are placed, in a solid or 
outlined letter ; the outline letter, 
however, being the most convenient, 
is most frequently used, especially 
when either the pjxnel or the letter, 
or both, are to be treated in water 
colors. The letter outlined is some- 
times filled in with carmine or other 
^'°' ^^' ^ l)right color, while the panel sur- 

rounds it with. a tint of cream- white, yellow, or green. Two or 
three shades of color are sometimes used, either variegated or in 
the form of line work on top cif tint, as in.Fig.oS. 

76. Ecclesiastical DecoT'ations. — For ecclesiastical 
decorations, such as wall panels containing inscriptions, which 





Fig. s-i 



are usually in the Old English, Gothic, or Church Text style of 
letter, as yvvAl as for display mottoes in schools, halls, etc., Avhere 
the Old English or other suitable lettering is used, the first 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



35 



capital (and sometimes all capitals) is illuminated, either on 
a papel of , gold, silver, or color. In all cases the 4)anel is made 




Fig. 34. 

to conform in a general way to the letter, as Fig. 34 shows. If 
gold or silver is used for a ground, the letter must be a dark 
color. If a colored ground (which is preferabla): is used, a 
gold or silver letter will be 
found to light up with colors 
and produce a most satis- 
factory result. 

77. Heraldic Shield. 

An heraldic shield is often 

brought into use, on which the 

illuminated capital is placed. 

There are many designs or 

forms of this shield, which ^^ ^"^ 

can be changed to suit any form of a letter, as shown in Fig. 35. 




EFFECTS 1?^ EETTEIIII^G. 



CONDENSI35G, EJ^OXGATING, TELESGOPINifi, AND 
INTERLACING, 

78. Condensing JLietters. — In conforming letters to fill 
a required space, we are often compelled to resort to various 
means of accomplishing our purpose, without making the 
inscrij)tion aj)pear distorted or out of proportion. When 
the panel or space to be lettered is much shorter than would 
admit of a regularly proportioned letter, we are compelled to 
resort to the condensing of the letters, observing generally the 



36 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

rules of their proportionate -widtli. All istyles of letters can 
be condensed except Railroad Block, 'which was invented 
exclusively for the opposite purpose. To illustrate more fully, 

COMPANY 



Fig. 36. 



the word Compan}/ is used to show the two forms of condensing, 
as well as the two forms of elongating. 



79. Kxaniplc of Condensed lietter. — In Fig. o6 is 
shown the condensed form, as may be seen by comparing 
the proportions of the letters with those of the Half Block 

Plate. The letterer may condense 

his letters to the width of those of 

Fig. 3G, and find they are still too 

large for the required space ; the 

vertical strokes can then be reduced 

to one-half the regular width, and 

^''^' ^''" the Imrizontal strokes maintained at 

the regular, or even greater, width, and less space allowed 

between letters, as in Fig. 37. This reduces the Avord to 

almost one-third that of Fig. 36. 

80. Eloiijjatiug Iiettei's. — To elongate the same word in 
the same style of letter, make the height, for convenience, one- 
half that of Fig. 36 ; thus it will be observed that if this 
elongated letter were twice the height it is in Fig. 38, it would 



the proportions of the 

COMP 




h^ 




Fig. S8. 



occupy a space almost four times that oi Fig. 36. To further 
elongate this word, reverse the rules of Fig. 37, by reducing 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



37 



the horizontal strokes one-half the regular width, keeping the 
vertical strokes regular width ; or these may be increased to 
twice their regular width if desired, also giving more space 
between the letters, as shown in Fig. 30. By this means a word 





IVI 




Fig. 39. 



can be made to fill a space much too long for the regular 
proportion given this style of letter. 

81. Telescoping. — Telescoping is not of so much prac- 
tical advantage as condensing or elongating, and is used mostly 
to produce a relief effect. This is done by giving the letters 
the appearance of overlapping one another, as shown in Fig. 40. 




Fia. 40. 

Every alternate letter is dropped enough below the line to 
prevent confusion of horizontal lines and to preserve the com- 
plete identity of each. These letters can be shaded on the 
background })ut not on the face, as this would tend to destroy 
their legibility. 

82. Interlacing. — Interlacing to its fullest extent enters 
into the construction of a monogram ; but the form of inter- 
lacing at present under consideration is somewhat different, 
and includes the interlacing of an entire word. This is very 
often resorted to by the designer, especially in the use of 
eccentric letters, which are made to extend far beyond the 
limits of the fundamental styles from which they are derived, 
as shown in Fig. 41. 



38 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



1 



OUTLINING AND ni^LING IX. 

80. AVater Colors. — Water colors are used for all classes 
of designing, and especially in commercial advertising work, as 
a small (][uantity of lithographic or printed work executed in 
black outline can be very economically colored or filled in with 
water colors by liand. A knowledge of the handling of water 
colors is, therefore, a necessity to the letterer. Dry color in 
powdered form is used when large areas of blended color are 
required. . This is applied with a wad of cotton, with which the 




dry color is spread evenly over the surface by gentle rubbing. 
The outline of the design is the guide for all water-color work 
in lettering panels, floral designs, etc. The wider this outline is 
made, the easier will be the work of flowing the color evenly, 
and the less the liability of running over the line ; the fine 
outline, however, is used in many ])laces, especially for 
floral designs, etc. 

84. Use of Water Colors. — Water colors are used to the 
best advantage on white show cards, having a dull finish, which 
readily absorb the moisture. The outline is made with the 
glossy black to which the water color will not adhere, but flows 
to the edge and stops. By this outline method, beautiful 
designs in flowers and highly illuminated effects can be pro- 
duced. Water colors also serve the purpose of shading or 



§ 1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 39 

tinting borders of cards outside of the fine line. For shading 
the letters, a brush is used that will as nearly as possible make 
the shade witli one stroke, as water color cannot be worked over, 
when once a])plied, without showing brush marks. Therefore, 
the color must be Howed on evenly with a quick, well-directed 
stroke, using care not to apply the brusli again over a shaded 
part when the excess water has been absorl)ed by the card. 



DESIGNING. 

85. Scope and Iini^ortarice. — The subject of designing 
is an almost inexhaustible one, and covers a broad field. There 
are, however, many general rules and many commonly accepted 
forms, which establish a foundation on which new ideas may 
be built. Designing will ever be an art that, aside from these 
general rules, involves the faculty for producing original con- 
ceptions or combinations which must conform to the dictates 
or system of a recognized class or school. Very few letterers 
are designers in the full sense of the word, and few of, our best 
designers are good letterers. Students in this course should 
cultivate a knowledge of this most important subject. An 
inscription of several lines of lettering, arranged so as to show 
intelligence in design, proves that the letterer has accomplished 
that which is of as much importance as a knowledge of the 
proper . formation of letters. The first thing, therefore, is to 
study the underlying principles of designing from the curve, 
which forms the first departure from a plain line of letters, to 
the combination, pictorial, and the wide field of original designs, 
the possibilities of which lie beyond the limits of this Instruction 
Paper. In showing the many ways in which curved lines are 
used for inscriptions, we will not attempt to make lines of 
letters, but allow the cui'vos and straight lines to represent these. 

86. Some Simple Combinations. — In Fig. 42 is shown 
the combination of the plain curve and straight line. The 
Roman letter or some light-stroke style is used on the curved- 
line, block, or other heavy-stroke letters on the straight line. 
The letters on the curve must be either vertical or parallel with 
the radius of the ctirve. 



40 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. § 1 



Next in importance is the componnd curve, or ogee, which is 
used when the inscription is composed of two words of about 
equal length, as in Fig. 43. Here, two ogee curves are used 





Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. 

under a single curve and above a straight line. Where one 
word occurs, we use the double ogee, which is made by uniting 
two ogee curves, as shown in Fig. 44. 

In many designs, the inclined straight lines are used, as 
shown in (a) of Fig. 45, or diminished in width from the 
outside to the center of the inscription, as shown in (ft) of 
the same figure. 

While these and many other lines and curves are used in 
designing an inscription, several straight lines of lettering 





(a) Fig. 45. (5) 

require a great amount of skill in equalizing and arranging 
them j)roperly, even in straight lines. In such designs only 
one style of letter (but made of various sizes, as the arrange- 
ment may require) is often used throughout the inscription. 



RIBBONS. 

87. The Ribbon. — The ribbon is used in many forms, 
and can be made to suit almost any style of inscription by 
folding or extending. When folded, the part representing the 
back of the ribbon is called the return, and must be shown by 
color or shading. The ribbon is made either in a regular curve 
or with irregular and broken edges. Fig. 46 shows the ribbon 
in some of its many forms, of which the names of its component 
parts are as follows : a, the bow ; h, the broken band ; c, the 
regular band ; d, the returning band ; e, the streamer ; and 
/, the roll. 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



41 



Th(! ri])l)OM is used also in a square or geometrical form, in 
which case the graceful and natural wave does not enter, as 
shown in Fig. 47. This form of ribbon serves its place in con- 
ventional or set designs. 




The ribbon is used also in the same form as the double ogee, 
and when thus used it must be made symmetrical on both ends. 
The fold can also be made in middle of ogee, as shown in 
Fig. 48, without distorting its symmetrical effect, but rather 




Fig. 47. 



giving it ease and grace, which should always be the aim 
of the designer. 

88. Shading the Ribbon. — In shading a ribbon, to 
make it ai3pear natural always observe the law of light and 




Fig. 48. 



shade. If the light should strike on one part of the ribbon, 
ihe opposite side corresponding with it must necessarily be 
in shadow. 

The study of light and shade is the first principle of design, 



42 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



and has been considered with reference to individual letters 
under the head of "Shading." In designing, as in drawing 
from nature, strict adherence to this law is absolutely necessary, 
as tlie slightest disregard of it is noticeable to the skilled eye. 
We have seen the advantage of shading single letters to the left, 
and it is well to practice the shading of designs on the left also, 
in order to avoid such mistakes as are likely to occur, by show- 
ing a shade on two opposite sides of an 
ol)ject or of several objects, when they are 
combined to form one single design. 

89. Reflected Ijiglit. — In the sha- 
ding of ribbons or any rounded object, there 
occurs what is called the reflected light. 
It shows the edge or line which, without 
the observance of this principle, would 
otherwise be lost where the darkest shaded 
parts come together. Fig. 49 shows this principle of reflected 
light, the greatest strength of the shade being somewhat removed 
from the extreme edge of the ol)ject, as at a, while the shadow 
cast by the object itself is strongest against the edge at b. 




Fk;. .i9. 



PAISTELS. 

90. Rectangiilai' Panels. — The panel has more forms 
than the ribbon, and is made to serve many purposes. The 




Fig. 50. 



simplest form is that of a rectangle, within which is sometimes 
drawn an inner panel of the same, or different, shape shown 
in Fig. 50. The surroundings of the panel can be made either 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



43 



simple or elaborate, as the material at hand in this style of 
design is inexhaustible. One of the many forms of the exterior 
of the panel is such as shown in Fig. 5L This work may be 




Fig. 51. 



so elaborated that the inner panel on which our lettering is to 
be placed becomes of minor importance, as shown in Fig. 52. 
This, of course, is not such a design as should be used to dis- 
play a conspicuous inscription. We must, therefore, keep in 




Fig. 52. 



mind the fact that the inscription, if important, is of greater 
value than the ornamentation, the latter being employed only 
to embellish it, without detracting from its prominence. 



44 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



91. Part Panels. — Another form of panel is that wliich 
is combined with some other design, in which the panel is not 
in the foreground of our design, as shown in Fig. 53. When 
the panel is left unfinished on one end, as in Fig. 53, it is 
known as a part panel, and many beautiful effects can be 
produced by its use. In this the damask principle is used, the 
panel being blended into the ground by means of color or with 
the pen. The lettering is also blended ; the extreme of light 
color is thus contrasted against the darkest part of the panel, 




Tig. 63. 



and the dark lettering is continued on the light ground 
outside of the panel. 

92. Elliptical and Round Panels. — Elliptical and 
round panels are also used and can be made extremely orna- 
mental. A touch of simple ornament in a design will often 
counterbalance a quantity of plain work, and give a general 
effect of ornamentation throughout. Fig. 54 shows an ellip- 
tical design, with simply a frame of ornamentation, which is 
sufficient for the purpose of ornamenting a design ; when such 
work is placed on other plainer material in a design, it gives 
the whole the appearance of completeness. 

93. Rococo Panels. — Another style of panel that has 
come into our' modern designs is the rococo panel ; not only is 
the scrollwork used for the panel itself, but it is frequently 
applied to the embellishment of many parts of the design. 



1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



45 



Fig. 55 shows one of the great variety of shapes the rococo 
panel assumes, as this style can be made to conform to the 




lines of any inscription, or to form a part of nearly any 
style of a design. 

The same style of scroll is frequently used for the purj^ose of 
filling up an open space in a design, although this is done also 
through the employment of natural forms, such as palms, olive 
or laurel branches, flow- q. 

ers, leaves, and conven- /^^^^^^^^^^^ 

tional obiects, vases, /^^sC^ '^->N^'^ « ^^i 



lamps, lions, griffins, etc. , 
and, in fact, any object 
pertaining to, or in har- 
mony with, the inscrip- 
tion. If the inscription 
of a design pertains to 
music, the lyre may be 
used to embellish the 
design ; if it pertains to 
the trades, such tools as 
are identified with the 

T • 1 Fig 55 

trades may appear in the ' " 

design. If literature or science is the subject, symbolic objects 




46 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



1 



can be used in a variety of ways. A large collection of choice 
designs should always be on hand for reference, from a review 
of which a suggestion may often be obtained that leads the 
designer's thought into an original channel, which, as we have 
stated before, is the chief aim of the designer. 



IXSCRIPTIOX DESIGNING. 



94. Proportion. — A piece of lettered work, no matter how 
artistic or elaborate it may be in itself, is not satisfactory if 
imj^roperly proportioned or balanced. The tendency in design- 

^ Permanent 




Association 

OF CHICAGO. 



Fig. 56. 



ing is to distril)iite the strength over the entire surface. If we 
keep in mind the law of art in a picture, it will help us in 
designing. The foreground should be the strength of a picture, 



1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



47 



the middle distance should be the semistrength, while the distance 
should be indistinct. This is the key not only to successful 
designing, but also to satisfactory lettering. The top and bot- 
tom lines of the design shown in Fig. 56 are Roman ; the words 
"permanent" and "association" are styles of heavier face, 
while the strength of the inscription is centered in the two 
middle lines. The selection of the proper style of letters to suit 
each requirement should be carefully studied. A single word 
or line of letters can be made of any form or style, but as soon 
as another line is added the letterer is compelled to study their 
combinations, and to make their relation to each other har- 
monious to the eye and in proper proportion. In an inscrip- 



,^^^(^<^^ 



BrbVn-,^^^ fiine 




'Tfi; 

" SHOES/ 



Fig. 57. 



tion of several words, the most important should be displayed 
in the most prominent style of letters, such as the Block or 
Egyptian, while the less important should be of smaller letters, 
and of such styles as one-stroke letter, or caps and lower case of 
the Roman or other styles. This rule does not interfere with 
the general effect produced in Fig. 56. If it should happen 
that the inscription cannot be made to conform to one rule in 
designing, it is best to change the design accordingly. In 
Fig. 57 is shown a design of an inscription in which the first 
and last Avords are most important, and from which eight 
words therefore could be taken, and still in effect, the principal 
feature of the whole inscription would remain "Brown's 
Shoes"; these words, therefore, should have the greatest 
prominence by making them large and of a solid-stroke letter. 



46 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



can be used in a variety of ways. A large collection of choice 
designs should always be on hand for reference, from a review 
of which a suggestion may often be obtained that leads the 
designer's thought into an original channel, which, as we have 
stated before, is the chief aim of the designer. 



IXSCRIPTIOX DESIGlSTPfG. 



94. Proportion. — A piece of lettered work, no matter how 
artistic or elaborate it may be in itself, is not satisfactory if 
improperly proportioned or balanced. The tendency in design- 

^ Permanent 




Association 

OF CHICAGO. 



ing is to distribute the strength over the entire surface. If we 
keep in mind the law of art in a picture, it will help us in 
designing. The foreground should be the strength of a picture, 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 47 

the middle distance should be the semistrength, while the distance 
should be indistinct. This is the key not only to successful 
designing, but also to satisfactory lettering. The top and bot- 
tom lines of the design shown in Fig. 56 are Roman ; the words 
"permanent" and "association" are styles of heavier face, 
while the strength of the inscription is centered in the two 
middle lines. The selection of the proper style of letters to suit 
each requirement should be carefully studied. A single word 
or line of letters can be made of any form or style, but as soon 
as another line is added the letterer is compelled to study their 
combinations, and to make their relation to each other har- 
monious to the eye and in proper j)roportion. In an inscrip- 







Fig. 57. 



tion of several words, the most important should be displayed 
in the most prominent style of letters, such as the Block or 
Egyptian, while the less important should be of smaller letters, 
and of such styles as one-stroke letter, or caps and lower case of 
the Roman or other styles. This rule does not interfere with 
the general effect produced in Fig. 56. If it should happen 
that the inscription cannot be made to conform to one rule in 
designing, it is best to change the design accordingly. In 
Fig. 57 is shown a design of an inscription in which the first 
and last words are most important, and from which eight 
words therefore could be taken, and still in effect, the principal 
feature of the whole inscription would remain "Brown's 
Shoes"; these words, therefore, should have the greatest 
prominence by making them large and of a solid-stroke letter. 



48 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 



STEN^CIL PATTERNS. 



PURPOSE OP STENCrLS. 

95. Letter Stencils. — The letterer is sometimes forced 
into competition with the printer, especially when handling a 
large order for advertising signs ; the method of hand work, 
therefore, must he laid aside for something that will have the 
effect of hand work, and still be accomplished with more 
rapidity, observing, at the same time, cleanliness and finish 
when the work is completed. The stencil pattern most effectu- 
ally fills this place, and is made to stencil either the letter or 
the background. The stencil for the former purpose is made by 
cutting out of paper or other material the greater portion of the 
letter, but allowing parts called "^i'es" to remain, as these tie 
the inside of the letter and parts likely to curl uji when in use. 
A second stencil is also required, which is laid over the work 
done by the first stencil when it has dried, thereby covering up 
the spaces left by the ties, and thus making a solid and com- 
plete letter. The same rule is observed in regard to the " cut- 
ting- in" stencils, which are used to make the background, and 
leave the letters the original color of the surface on which the 
color is spread. Large ties are used for " cutting-in " stencils, 
reaching from the letter to the edge of the stencil or border. 
A second stencil, so cut as to overlap the edges of the ties, is 
also used, thereby completing the entire background, leaving 
the letter clear and distinct. 

96. Variegated Grounds for Stenciled Iietters. — The 

ground having been prepared and the inscription designed, 
the spaces occupied by each line of letters can be blended — a 
process known among letterers as variegated stenciling. This is 
accomplished by laying various colors on a ground, and blend- 
ing them together. As colors are too strong for this purpose, 
two or three delicate tints are used, and are laid on hori- 
zontally, and without regard to where the color is placed, 
except where the letters show. In all cases, the selection of 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 49 

the tints used to variegate the letters should be governed by the 
color to be used for the background, according to the rules of 
harmony and contrast. 



MATERIAL FOR STENCILS. 

97. Paper. — The toughest medium- weight Manila paper 
should be used for stencils, oiled thoroughly with boiled linseed 
oil, and allowed to stand at least twenty-four hours before 
coating both sides thinly Avith orange shellac. If a light 
quality of fiber board is used, no preparation is necessary. A 
sheet of glass laid on a perfectly even table provides a surface 
on which the stencil can be cut with a good steel knife 
sharpened to a thin point. It is well to mark the ties with 
some bright color, to avoid cutting through them, as a single tie 
cut through destroys the whole stencil, and an imperfect stencil 
will cause more bother in its use than it is worth. It is best, 
therefore, never to use a patched or repaired stencil, 

98. Tin-Foil Stencils. — Tin- foil stencils for glass sign 
printing are designed and cut in the same way as the paper. 
A roller only is used in operating this stencil, while either brush 
or roller can be used with the paper stencil. A large soft 
brush will produce better results than a stiff brush, and be less 
likely to destroy the pattern. In dipping the brush in color, 
great care should be used to rub it out well, so that but little 
remains before applying to the stencil. This is the secret of 
cleanliness in stenciling. 

99. Cutting Stencils. — Figs. 58 and 59 show one method 
of cutting stencils. First, Fig. 58 shows the stencil that makes 
the letter, allowing ties to remain where most strength is needed 
for the preservation of the stencil. This stencil being com- 
pleted, a small triangle is cut in each corner, shown at a, called 
the register, or guide, by which the stencil can always be placed 
in proper position. This stencil is placed on material prepared 
for the No. 2 stencil, as shown in Fig. 59. Letters are either 
marked or stenciled with a brush, which should be almost free 
from color, so that the second stencil for the ties can be cut out, 



50 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



allowing enough lap to fully insure its covering the open space, 
as shown in Fig. 59. Register, or guide, marks are cut in this 
stencil also, though these marks are never used excejDt where a 
border color is to be placed afterwards, and serve only for 




► '^; 









Fig. 58. Fig. 59. 

a second stencil. The edge or corner of a sign will, in most 
cases, serve as a guide in stenciling. Ties should always be cut 
so as to do away with points or projections as well as to secure 
strength where needed. If these rules are not followed, serious 
difficulty will be experienced when using a stencil, and may 
necessitate the making of a new stencil before the first one has 
been made to fully serve its purpose. 



100. Backi>roxintl Stencils. 



To make stencils for back- 
grounds, everything is 
reversed from the first 
form. The letters must 
be covered, and all ties 
cut so as to keep these 
letters where they 
belong. If a border is 
required, we must treat 
it the same as a letter. 
The ties must be cut 

■■ wider on l)order edge, 

'*^' ■ as they thereby give 

more strength where needed. In making this stencil it is 




1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



51 



better to have too many ties than leave one place weak. 
The general tendency is to leave one or more such places 
in this form of stencil. Fig. 60 shows two letters R, 0, and 
the ties necessary for strength and protection. Fig. 61 shows 
the No. 2 stencil, or the one to be used to cover spaces left 
by the ties of No. 1 ; the parts to be cut out are represented by 
the shaded spaces. 

101. Sign Stenciling. — Stenciled signs are often relieved 
by a few touches of hand work, either in outlining the letters 
or by artistically using some bright coloring that produces the 
effect of study and labor. This is often accomplished by shading 
or ornamentation. For stencil work, a color must be used of a 
slow-drying nature, otherwise the stencil will soon become 
clogged and more liable to become broken. There is also 
danger of using color too thin, and thus causing it to flow 
underneath the edge of the letter, thereby destroying the 
cleanliness of the work. 



102. Cleaning Stencils. — The stencil must be cleaned 
often when in use. Not more than five or six signs should be 
stenciled before cleaning the stencil, which may be done by 

laying it face down on . — ; 

a clean board or other 

surface and rubbing well 

on back with a cloth 

rolled in ball shape. 

The stencil must be 

thoroughly cleaned with 

benzine after using, and 

never put away with 

any color remaining on 

it. This if neglected 

will either cause the 

stencil to break easily, or the color to flow underneath by the 

extra thickness of the dried color. Color left to dry on 

the stencil often warps it so as to render it practically useless, 

or cause the letterer much unnecessary trouble. 




Fig. 61. 



52 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



GEOMETRICAL FIGURES. 



TRIANGLES. 

103. Defluition of Triangle. — A triangle is a closed 
figure having three angles and three straight sides. 

104. Isosceles Triangles.— An isosceles triangle has 
two equal sides and two equal angles (Fig. 62). The length of 





Fig. 62. 



Fig. 63. 



the third side is usually different from that of the two equal 
sides, and is called the base. The term base is, however, 
applied without distinction to any side on which a triangle is 
supposed to stand. 

105. Altitnde. — Whatever side is taken as the base of a 
triangle, the altitude, or height, of the triangle is the perpen- 




FlG. 64. 



Fig. 65. 



dicular distance from the base to the vertex of the opposite 
angle. That vertex is also called the ape.r of the triangle. 

106. Angular Pediment. — When the height of an 
isosceles triangle is short in comparison with the liase, the 
triangle is called an angular pediment (Fig. 63). 

107. Gable. — A gable is an isosceles triangle wdiose equal 
sides differ but little from the third side (see Fig. 64). Gables, 
however, may also have the shape of Fig. 65. 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



53 



108. Eqxiilateral Triangle. — An equilateral triangle 
lias three equal sides and three angles, as in Fig. 66, which is 
made up of equilateral triangles. 

109. liiglit- Angled Triangle. — A right-angled triangle 

is one having one right angle 
(Fig. 67). The side opposite the 
right angle is the longest, and is 
called the hypotenuse. 





Fig. 66. 



Fig. 67. 



A triangle cannot have more than one right angle, nor more 
than one obtuse angle ; that is, if one of the angles is either 
right or obtuse, the others must be acute. 



CIRCLES. 

110. Definition of Circle. — A circje is a closed 5gure, 
all the points of whose outline are at the same distance from a 
point within called the center (Fig. 68). The term circle is 
applied both to the curved outline of the figure and to the 
space enclosed by it ; but the curved outline 
is more commonly called the circumference of 
the circle. 




Fig. 68 



111. Radius and Diameter. — The dis- 
tance from the center of a circle to any point 
on the circumference is called the radius of 
the circle. 

A line through the center of a circle, and having its ends 
on the circumference, is called a diameter. In Fig. 69, is the 
center of the circle, OB, D, A, and C are radii, A B and 
CD are diameters. 



54 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



S 



Every diameter is equal to two radii, and divides the circle 
into two equal parts, or semicircles, and the circumference into 
two semi-circumferences. 

Two diameters, perpendicular to eacli other as A B and CD, 
divide the circumference into four equal parts called quadrants. 

112. A Curve. — A curved line, or a curve, is a line no 
part of which is straight ; it may be 
imagined to be formed by the bending 
of a straight line. Any portion of a 
^ curve is called an arc. 




113. A Circular Arc. — A circular 
arc is any part of a circumference. 
Circular arcs having the same center, 
but different radii, are called parallel arcs. 
They are inside one another. They are 
also called concentric, which means "with the same center." 



ORXAMENTAT^ CtTR^TIS. 

114. All Ogee. — An ogee is a line curved in two ways, 
having, approximately, the form of the letter S, either in its 



Fig. 70. 



Fig. 71. 



natural ])osition, as in Fig. 70, or turned over, as in Fig. 71. 
Tht^ two i)arts of an ogee may be circular arcs, but arcs of other 





Fig. 73. 



Fig. 74. 



curves give a better effect. Fig. 72 is made up of two ogees, 
and is called a su-ell line. 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 55 

115. A Scroll. — A scroll is a winding curve, such as 
shown in Fig. 73. 

116. A Loop. — A loop (Fig. 74) consists of two curves 
similar to the corresponding parts of right and -left scrolls, 
connected as shown. 



THE ETuLIPSE. 

117. Methods of Describing an Ellipse. — There are 
many ways of making or describing an ellipse, some of which 
are quite complicated. For designing purposes, exclusive of 
architectural work, a knowledge of two or three methods will 
serve every purj)ose, and fill the needs of the average letterer 
and designer. The simplest method is by means of two tacks 
and a string ; or, if needed for landscape gardening or other 
large-proportioned work, use hemp cord and nails or pegs. 
Draw a horizontal line, and intersect equally with a vertical 
line ; point off on the horizontal line the length of ellipse 
desired ; divide the horizontal line, from this point to the verti- 
cal line, into four equal parts, and place the tack on the third 
point from the vertical on 
either side ; place the other 
tack also in a corresponding 
position opposite ; place a 
string around both tacks, 
and tie the ends together 
at the point farthest from 
the vertical on the hori- 
zontal line ; place lead pencil 
inside and follow around, 
and we have a perfect ellipse 
as a result, as shown in 

Fig. 75. By moving the tacks farther away from the vertical 
line, the ellipse is elongated, if the same string be used. 

118. To draw the ellipse shown in Fig. 76, construct two 
squares, and draw lines from the corners intersecting in the cen- 
ter of each square ; from this point of intersection, describe the 




56 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



arcs, Avith compass from a to b ; from tlie points c, describe 
upper and lower lines from a to a and h to h. 

119. Another simple form of the ellipse is made by 

describing two circles, which 
together form the length 
of the ellipse, and drawing 
a horizontal line through 
the centers of both circles, 
as in Fig. 77 ; each semi- 
circle is then divided into 
three eqnal parts, as at 
<:, a, «, a, and a line is 
drawn from each through 
the center of each circle, 




Fig. vg. 



meeting at the point h ; from this jioint describe the curve 
from a to a, top and bot- 
tom, and the resulting 
figure will be an approxi- 
mate ellipse. The ellipse 
is sometimes spoken of as 
an oiml. This word, how- 
ever, is a misnomer, as the 
oval derives its name from 
the Latin ovum, meaning 
"an egg," and its shape 
is the outline of an egg. 
Never refer to tlie oval there- 
fore as an egg-shaped oval, 
for the statement would he equivalent to speaking of a 
round circle. 




MODIFICATIONS OF THE FUXDAME:N^TAL STTI.FS. 

120. The various styles of alphabet included in this course 
are known as the fundamental styles, from which arise other 
styles that, though they resemble the above somewhat, have so 
little characteristic modification that they are scarcely worth 
our present consideration. Moreover, these alphabets are of 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 57 

little advantage to the student, but to avoid the danger of con- 
fusion, we will briefly refer to a feAv of the principal varieties. 

121. Latin Roman. — The characteristic feature of the 
original Latin Roman alphabet was its irregular it}', which is 
i:)lainly shown on the Arch of Titus, Fig. 1. No space is 
allowed between the words, the separation being implied by a 
dot on a line with the center of the letter. The tail of the R 
and the Q often projects the full width of the letter. The 
letter V was also employed to express the sound of U, but its 
modern use in that capacity by some designers is erroneous. 
The other sound of this character in Latin resembles that of 
our W, having somewhat the sound of the V instead of the 
U. Hence, the origin of the W, which is not derived from 
U but from V, and originally written VV, expressed by two 
separate characters. 

122. Ancient Roman. ^The Ancient Roman is the 
prototype of our present French Roman, but in many ways is 
so departed from in modern practice that some of the modified 
forms of letters have become more familiar than the originals. 

A 7\ 

(a) 0>> 

Fig. 78. 

This can be readily seen in the letter A, Fig. 7S, where («) is 
the original form and (6) the modification. 

123. Antique Egyptian. — There are several forms of 
each letter of the Antique Egyptian, which if seen by the 
student in connection with the regular or normal letter would 
tend to confuse him, or at least cause him to inquire why 
he should observe any system or regularity of form. The law 
of uniformity is, in lettering, what the order is in architecture ; 
each must be closely followed, or to the skilled eye the work is 
subject to criticism. These styles, therefore, must not be con- 
fused. If one form is adopted there must be strict adherence 



58 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



/Nddor 



to that form throughout the lettering of the design. This may 
be more clearl}^ shown by two or three of these forms of the 
capital letters and their corresponding lower case. When 

the slanting stroke is 

used in such letters as 

H, M, N, and V, it also 

occurs in many of the 

^^'^■- '^- lower-case letters, as a, d, 

h, ni, n, and u, as the letters N, a, d, in Fig. 79, will show. 

Tlie letter o is sometimes used in this style, as here shown, 

and the letter t is crossed above the line. 

124. Otlici' Forms of Antique Egyptian. — Another 
form of the Antique Eg3'ptian style is shown in the curved 
stroke, in place of the horizontal middle stroke, of many capital 




Y7 




Fig. 80. 



Fig. 81. 



and lower-case letters, as in the E and t in Fig. 80 ; while a 
chi.ngo in the s[)ur of the horizontal strokes changes the charac- 
ter of the entire letter, as shown in the letters L and T, Fig. 81. 
Thci'e are many other slight departures 
from the normal style, one of which occurs 
in the middle bar of the A and PI, as 
shown in Fig. 82. 

There is still another form of letter that 
belongs to the Plain Egyptian style. This 
form is simple in its construction, and does 
not l)ear sufficient distinction to classify it 
with the fundamental styles ; but in one respect, this form of 
letter is closely allied to the French Roman, and the similarity 
is shown ill its having the heavy and light line, as shown 
in Fi-. 83. 




Fig. 82. 



§ 1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 59 

A few letters of this style are therefore shown to give the 
student an idea of the comparative width of the stroke and 
fine line. The latter should not exceed ^ that of the stroke. 
There is almost unlimited license granted in forming these 



¥i 



HEL 



By/vNDiTs 

Fig. 83. 

letters, as shown in the two letters T and E. In making 
these letters never place a spur on any part of the letter, as this 
at once throws the characteristic feature of the style in favor of 
the French Roman ; and to widen the fine line to nearly that 
of the stroke brings it within classification limits of the 
Egyptian. Never show a suggestion of a straight line on 
the inside of the round letters, but always make a perfect ellipse 
or a symmetrical curve. This letter holds an important place 
with our modern designers, but a knowledge of the Egyptian 
and French Roman only is necessary to produce this modifi- 
cation. This is likewise true of all letters used. By a thorough 
knowledge of the few fundamental styles, the student can readily 
trace all variations arising from these to their parent style. 

125. Boston Roman. — The Boston Roman has a slight 
variation from the normal form shown in 
Plate 14 which occurs in the spur only, 
but which gives it a marked difference in 
appearance from the regular style. The 
spur, instead of being finished on the end, 
as shown in Plate entitled Boston Roman, 
is cut off on an angle of about 45°, as shown in Fig. 84. 

126. Antique Half Block. — A third style, known as the 
Antique Half Block, has two or three varieties. Such of 
the capitals, as Avell as the small letters, as possess a middle 
stroke have this stroke changed to an angle of 60°. In one 




Fig. 84. 



60 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



variety the short strokes of the lower-case letters are cut on tlie 
same angle as the iiiiddle stroke, as shown in Fig. 85, the angle 




Fig. 85. 



Fig. 86. 



of the s being directly opposite. Another variety of this letter 
is the same as Fig. 85, except that the short strokes are altered 
in appearance, and are finished Avith a fine line and a dot, as 

Beautu 



Fig. 87. 



shown in Fig. 86. This form of letter can be spaced more 
closely than the regular style used in condensed spaces, and 
the varietv shown in Fig. 87 requires even less space than either 

EEC 



Ca) 



(b) 



(cj 



Fig. 



of the others ; and, as the corners are not cut off, the letter 
possesses a square, compact appearance, somewhat relieved of 
severity hx the finishing of the corners with a slight spur. The 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



61 



same rule of formation applies to capitals as Avell as to lower- 
case letters, except the middle bars of E and F, which are 
always horizontal. 

12T. Frencii Roman. — The French Roman is also in 
turn slightly changed, giving rise to several distinct varieties, as 
shown in Fig. 88. In the letter E, shown at (a), the only 
difference from the Ancient Roman style 
is the spur that projects at a right angle 
from the horizontal lines top and bottom. 
In the letter shown at (6) the spurs 
are the same as at (a), except those of 
the main upright -strokes, which are 
finished with a flat end. The round 
letter of this style is shown at (c). 

128. The riemisli.— The Flemish 
or Dutch, so closely resembling the Ger- 
man Text, is another style that will not 
be considered in this course. The characteristic feature of this 
alphabet is the diamond, dot, and plain vertical stroke and fine 
line, as shown in Fig. 89, its other features being practically the 
same as the German style. In the lower-case very little change 




Fig. 89. 




Fig. 90. 

occurs except the ball, which is added to many of the long' 
stroke letters, as shown in the figure. 

129. Tai'iations. — There are so many styles of letters, 
arising "from some simple idea, that any student of lettering may 
appl}^ to a fundamental style ; and such ideas are so numerous, 
that it will be impossible to call attention to more than one or 
two of these in conclusion. 



62 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



1 



The curved stroke is one such style, and is shown by the 
letters D, R, U, G, in Fig. 90. Another of these styles is pro- 

TEL 

Fig. 91. 

dviced by curving the spur and horizontal strokes forming the 

block letters, especially the full block, as shown in Fig. 91. 

Note. — The modifications considered in the foregoing j)ages of this Instruc- 
tion Paper refer to fundamental styles, many of which the student will not have 
occasion to refer to, or make comparisons with until well advanced in his 
course, tve ivould advise, therefore, that a study of these variations be deferred 
until the plates mentioned in this connection have been received, and the funda- 
mental styles have become familiar to the student. 



MECHA^n^CAL LETTERING. 

130. When instruments such as the T square, triangles, 
compasses, etc. are used to execute lettering, it is called 
mechanical lettering, as distinguished from freehand lettering, 




Fig. 92. 



which is executed with the pen or brush, unaided by anything 
except the judgment of the eye. 



1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



63 



131. All the instruments and materials required for this 
course in lettering are mentioned in the following descriptions : 

The drawing board should be made of "vvell-seasoned 
straight-grained pine, the grain running lengthwise. For this 
course, the student will need a board of about the following 
dimensions : length over all, 21 inches ; width, 16 inches ; the 
thickness may be made about ^ inch. There should be two 
end-pieces If inches wide, as shown in Fig. 92, which are fast- 
ened to the board proper by means of nails or screws. One or 
both of these pieces should be perfectly straight. 




Fig. 93. 



A better board is shown in Fig. 93 ; here the end-pieces are 
fastened to the board by a glued matched joint in addition to 
the nails or screws, and there are two cleats on the bottom 
1 inch by |- inch, extending the whole width of the board. 
The cleats raise the board from the table and make it easier to 
change in position. The board is placed so that a straight end- 
piece is at the left of the draftsman, as shown in Fig. 93. 



132. The T square is used for drawing horizontal straight 
lines. The head A is placed against the left-hand edge of the 



64 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



board, as shown in Fig. 94. The upper edge C of the blade B 
is brought very near to the point through which it is desired to 
pass the line, so that the straight edge G of the blade may be 




Fig. 94. 



used as a guide for the pen or pencil. It is evident that all 
lines drawn in this manner will be parallel. 

Vertical lines are drawn by means of triangles. The triangles 
most generally used are shown in Figs. 95 and 96. Each has 
one right angle, marked 90° in the figures. Fig. 95 has two 




Flu. 95. 



Fig. 96. 



angles of 45° each, and Fig. 96 one of 60° and one of 30°. 
They are called 4.5° and 60° triangles^ respectively. To draw a 
vertical line, place the T square in position to draw a horizontal 
line, and lay the triangle against it, so as to form a right angle. 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



65 



Hold both T square and triangle lightly with the left hand, so 
as to keep them from slipping, and draw the line with the pen 
or pencil held in the right hand, and against the edge of the 
triangle. Fig. 97 shows the 
triangles and T square in 
position. 

133. For drawing par- 
allel lines that are neither 
vertical nor horizontal, the 
simplest and best way, 
when the lines are near 
together, is to place one 
edge of a triangle, as a b, 
Fig. 98, on the given line c d, and lay the other triangle, as B, 
against one of the two edges, holding it fast with the left hand ; 
then move the triangle A along the edge of B. The edge a b will 
be parallel to the line cd ; and when the edge ab reaches the 
point g, through which it is desired to draw the parallel line, 
hold both triangles stationary with the left hand, and draw the 
line ef by passing the pencil along the edge ab. Should 




Fig. 97. 




the triangle A extend too far beyond the edge of the triangle B 
after a number of lines have been drawn, hold A stationary with 
the left hand and shift B along the edge of A with the right 
hand, and then proceed as before. 



66 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



134. A line may be drawn at right angles to another line 
which is neither vertical nor horizontal, as illustrated in Fig. 99. 
Let cd be the given line (shown at the left-hand side). Place 
one of the shorter edges, as ah, of the triangle B so that it will 
coincide with the hne c d ; then, keeping the triangle in this 
position, place the triangle A so that its long edge will come 
against the long edge of B. Now, holding A securely in place 
with the left hand, slide B along the edge of A with the right 
hand, when the lines hi\ mn, etc. may be drawn perpendicular 
to cd along the edge bf of the triangle B. The dotted lines 




Fig. 99. 

show the position of the triangle B Avlien moved along the 
edge of A. 

135. The right-hand portion of Fig. 99 shows another 
method of accomplishing the same result, and illustrates how 
the triangles may be used for drawing a rectangular figure, 
when the sides of the figure make an angle with the T square 
such that the latter cannot be used. 

Let the side c d of tlie figure be given. Place the long side of 
the triangle B so as to coincide with the line cd, and bring the 
triangle A into position against the lower side of B, as shown. 
Now, holding the triangle u4. in place with the left hand, revolve 
B so that its other short edge will rest against the long edge A, 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



67 



as shown in the dotted position at B'. The parallel lines ce 
and d/may now he drawn through the points c and d by sliding 
the triangle B on the triangle A^ as described in connection 
with Fig. 98. Measure off the required width of the figure on 
the line c e, reverse the triangle B again to its original position, 
still holding the triangle A in a fixed position with the left 
hand, and slide B upon A ontil the long edge of B passes 
through e. Draw the line ef through the point e, and ef will 
be parallel to cd. The student should practice with his 
triangles before beginning drawing. 



136. The compasses, next to the T square and triangles, 
are used more than any other 
instrument. A pencil and a pen 
point are provided, as shown in 
Fig. 100, either of which may be 
inserted into a socket in one leg 
of the instrument, for the draw- 
ing of circles in pencil or ink. 
The other leg is fitted with a 
needle point, which acts as the 
center about which the circle is 
drawn. In all good instruments, 
the needle point itself is a sepa- 
rate piece of round steel wire, 
held in place in a socket pro- 
vided at the end of the leg. 
The ware should have a square 
shoulder at its lower end, below 
which a fine, needle-like point 
projects. The lengthening bar, also 
shown in the figure, is used to 
extend the leg carrying the pen 
and the pencil points when circles 
of large radii are to be drawn. 

The joint at the top of the compasses should hold the legs 
firmly in any position, and at the same time should permit their 
being opened or closed with one hand. The joint may be 




Fig. 100. 



68 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



tightened or loosened by means of a screwdrive- or wrench, 
which accompanies the compasses. 

It will be noticed in Fig. 100 that each leg of the compasses 
is jointed ; this is done so that the compass points may always 
be kept perpendicular to the paper when drawing circles, as in 
Fig. 102. 

137. The following suggestions for handling the compasses 
should be carefully observed by those that are beginning the 
subject of drawing. Any draftsman or letterer that handles 
his instruments awkwardly will create a bad impression, no 




Fig. 101. 

matter how good a workman he may be. The tendency of all 
beginners is to use both hands for operating the compasses. 
This is to be avoided. The student should learn at the start to 
open and close them with one hand, holding them as shown in 
Fig. 101, with the needle-point leg resting between the thumb 
and the fourth finger, and the other leg between the middle 
finger and the forefinger. When drawing circles, hold the 
compasses lightly at the top between the thumb and forefinger, 
or thumb, forefinger, and middle finger, as in Fig. 102. Another 
case where both hands should not be used is in locating the 
needle point at a point on the drawing about which the circle is 
to be drawn, unless the left hand is used merely to steady the 
needle point. Hold the compasses as shown in Fig. 101, and 



1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



69 



incline them until the under side of the hand rests upon the 
paper. This will steady the hand so that the needle point can 
be brought to exactly the right place on the drawing. Having 
placed the needle at the desired point, and with it still resting 
on the paper, the pen or pencil point may be moved out or in 
to any desired radius, as indicated in Fig. lOL When the 
lengthening bar is used, both hands must be employed. 

138, The compasses must be handled in such a manner 
that the needle point will not dig large holes in the paper. 




Fig. 102. 



Keep the needle point adjusted so that it will be perpendicular 
to the paper, when drawing circles, and do not bear upon it. A 
slight pressure will be necessary on the pen or pencil point, but 
not on the needle point. 

139. The dividers, shown in Fig. 103, are used for laying 
off distances upon a drawing, or for dividing straight lines or 
circles into parts. The points of the dividers should be very 
sharp, so that they will not punch holes in the paper larger 



70 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. ^ 1 

than is absolutely necessary to be seen. Compasses are some- 
times furnished with two steel divider points, besides the pen 
and pencil points, so that the instrument may be used either as 
compasses or dividers. This is the kind illustrated in Fig. 103. 
When using the dividers to space a line or circle into a number 
of ecjual parts, hold them at the top between the thumb and the 
forefinger, as when using the compasses, and step off the spaces, 
turning the instrument alternately to the right and left. If the 
line or circle does not space exactly, vary the distance between 
the divider points and try again ; so continue until it is spaced 
equally. When spacing in this manner, great care must be 
exercised not to press the divider points into the paper ; for, if 




the points enter the paper, the spacing can never be accurately 
done. The student should satisfy himself of the truth of this 
statement by actual trial. 

140. Drawing Paper and Pencils. — The drawing 
paper required for this series of lessons is Whatman's hot- 
pressed -i- Royal, the size of which is 12 in. X 19 in. It takes ink 
well, and withstands considerable erasing. The paper is 
secured to the drawing board by means of thumbtacks. Four 
are usually sufficient — one at each corner of the sheet. Place a 
piece of paper on the drawing board, and press a thumbtack 
through one of the corners about ^ or f of an inch from each 
edge. Place the T square in position for drawing a horizontal 
line, as before explained, and straighten the paper so that its 
upper edge will be parallel to the edge of the T-square blade. 
Pull the corner diagonally opposite that in which the thumb- 
tack was placed, so as to stretch the paper slightly, and push in 
another thumbtack. Do the same with the remaining two 
corners. For drawing in pencil, a Dixon's Artists' H pencil. 
No. 217 (commonly called a No. 4 Dixon's Artists') may be 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



71 



used. The pencil should be sharpened to a medium point. 
Cut the wood away so as to leave about ^ or f of an inch of the 
lead projecting ; then finish the point by rubbing it against a 
fine file or a piece of fine emery cloth or sandpaper that has 
been fastened to a flat stick. The lead for the compasses should 
be sharpened to a flat or chisel-shaped point. Be sure that the 




Fig. 104. 

compass lead is so secured that, ivhen circles are struck in either 
direction, but one line will be draivn with the same radius and center. 

141. Inking. — For drawing ink lines other than arcs of 
circles, the ruling pen (or right-line ^Mn, as it is sometimes 
called) is used. It should be held as nearly perpendicular to 
the board as possible, with the hand in the position shown in 
Figs. 104 and 105, bearing lightly on the T square or triangle, 
against the edge of which the line is drawn. After a little 
practice, this position will become natural, and no difficulty 
will be experienced. 

142. The beginner will find that it is not always easy to 
make smooth lines. If the pen is held so that only one blade 
bears on the paper when drawing, the line will almost invariably 



72 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



be ragged on the edge where the blade does not bear. When 
held at right angles to the paper, as in Fig. 105, however, 
both blades will rest on the paper, and if the pen is in good con- 
dition, smooth lines will resnlt. The pen mnst not be pressed 
against the edge of the T sqnare oi- triangle, as the blades will 
then close together, making the line uneven. Tlie edge sliould 
serve simpl}^ as a guide. 

In drawing circles with the compass pen, the same care 
should be taken to keep the blades perpendicular to the paper 




Fig. 105. 

Dy means of the adjustment at the joint. In both the ruling 
pen and the compass pen, the width of tlie lines can be altered 
by means of the screw which holds the blades together. 

143. Di'aAving- Ink. — The ink used should be Higgins' 
waterproof liquid India ink. A quill is attached to the cork of 
every bottle of this ink, by means of which the pen may be 
filled. Dip the quill into the ink, and then pass the end of it 
between the blades of the drawing pen. Do not put too much 
ink in the pen, not more than enough to fill it for a quarter of 
an inch along the blades, otherwise tlie ink is lial)le to drop. 
Many draftsmen prefer to use stick India ink; and, for lettering 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 73 

piirposeSj^ this is to be preferred to the prepared liquid ink 
recommended above. In case the stick ink is bought, put 
enough water in a shallow dish (a common individual butter 
plate will do) to make enough ink for the drawing ; then place 
one enci of the stick in the water, and grind by giving the stick 
a circular motion. Do not bear hard upon the stick. Test the 
ink occasionally to see if it is black. Draw a fine line with the 
pen, and hold the paper in a strong light. If it shows brown 
(or gray), grind a while longer, and test again. Keep grinding 
until a fine line shows hlach, which will usually take from 
fifteen minutes to half an hour, depending on the quantity of 
water used. The ink should always be kept well covered with a 
flat plate of some kind, to keep out the dust and prevent evapo- 
ration. The drawing pen may be filled by dipping an ordinary 
writing pen into the ink and drawing it through the blades, as 
previously described when using the quill. If Higgins' ink is 
used, all the lines on all the drawings will be of the same color, 
and no time will be lost in grinding. If stick ink is used, it is 
poor economy to buy a cheap stick. A small stick of the best 
quality, costing, say, a dollar, will last as long, perhaps, as five 
dollars' worth of liquid ink. The only reason for using liquid 
ink is that all lines are then sure to be of equal blackness, and 
time is saved in grinding. 

Trouble will probably be caused by the ink drying between 
the blades and refusing to flow, especially when drawing fine 
lines. The only remedy is to wipe out the pen frequently with 
a wet cloth. Do not lay the pen down for any great length of 
time, when it contains ink ; wipe it out first. The ink may 
sometimes be started by moistening the end of the finger and 
touching it to the point, or by drawing a slip of paper between 
the ends of the blade. Always keep the bottle corked. 

144. To Sharpen the Drawing Pen. — When the 

ruling, or compass, pen becomes badly worn, it must be sharp- 
ened. For this purj)ose a fine oilstone should be used. If an 
oilstone is to be purchased, a small, flat, close-grained stone 
should be obtained, those having a triangular section being 
preferable, as the narrow edge can be used on the inside of the 



74 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

blades in case the latter are not made to swing apart so as to 
permit the use of a thicker edge. 

The first stop in sharpening is to screw the blades together, 
and, holding the pen perpendicular to the oilstone, to draw it 
back and forth over the stone, changing the slope of the pen 
from downward and to the right to downward and to the left 
for each movement of the pen to the right and left. The object 
of this is to bring tlie blades to exactly the same length and 
shape, and to round them nicely at the point. 

This pi'ocess, of course, makes the edges even duller than 
before. To sharpen, separate the points by means of the screw, 
and rub one of the blades to and from the operator in a straight 
line, giving the pen a slight twisting motion at the same time, 
and holding it at an angle of about 15° with the face of the 
stone. Repeat the process for the other blade. To be in good 
condition the edges should be fairly sharp and smooth, but not 
sharp enough to cut the i)aper. All the sharpening must be done 
on the outside of the blades. The inside of the blades should be 
rubbed on the stone only enough to remove any burr that may 
have been formed. Anything more than this "will be likely to 
injure the pen. The wliole operation must be done very 
carefully, bearing on lightly, as it is easy to sjioil a pen in the 
process. Examine the points frecjuently, and keep at work 
until the pen will draw both fine lines and smooth heavy lines. 



now THE AVOIIK SIIOUI.r) BK SENT. 

145. For the letter plates of this Course, copies of the 
plates will be sent you as you need them. The tube we send 
you with this Paper should be used by you for sending us your 
drawing of Plate I njion finishing it. Send one i>late to us at 
a time. Thus, after you finish the first plate, send it to us, and 
then start on the second j^late. In the meantime we will 
return the first plate to you. On your receiving back the first 
plate from ns, you should carefully note all corrections and 
suggestions that may be sent with it, and observe them when 
drawing the succeeding ]>lates. On no account send us the 
second plate until you have received the first one back. Upon 



§1 ELEMENTS OP LETTERING. 75 

finishing the second plate, send this to us and start on tlie third 
plate, and in the rncanliino we will return the second plate to 
you. Do this with all the drawing plates in the Course. 

It is very essential that you strictly comply with these direc- 
tions ; since, otherwise, it will he impossihle for us to point out 
your mistakes to you. This j^rocedure should he strictly adhered 
to while you are drawing the first plates of the Course — it will 
enahle you to make rapid progress. Do not he discouraged if 
there are a large number of corrections on your early plates ; 
we are merely pointing out ways in which the drawing or letter- 
ing can be improved, so that your later plates may be as nearly 
perfect as they can be made. No one can attain proficiency 
unless the work is criticized, and we are doing our best to help 
you to succeed. We should not be doing our duty if we did 
not point out the defects. The number of corrections is no 
indication of our appreciation of the merits of the drawing. 

On all plates that you send to us, write your name and 
address in full in lead pencil on the back of the plates. This 
should in no case be omitted, as delays in the return of your 
work will otherwise surely occur. 



PLATES. 

146. Preliminary Directions. — The size of each plate 
over all will be 11^ in. X 18^ in. Whenever any dimensions are 
specified, they should be laid off as accurately as possible. All 
drawings should be made as neat as possible, and the penciling 
entirely finished before inking in any part of it. The hands 
should be perfectly clean, and should not touch the paper 
except when necessary. No lines should be erased except 
w^hen absolutely necessary ; f(jr, whenever a line has once been 
erased, the dirt flying around in the air and constantly falling 
on the drawing will stick to any spot where an erasure has 
been made, and render it very difficult, if not impossible, to 
entirely remove it. For this reason, all construction lines that 
are to be removed, or that are liable to be changed, should be 
drawn lightly, that the finish of the pajjer may not be destroyed 
when erasing them. 



Lettering and Sign Painting. 



i]s^tiioductio:n^. 

1. Scope of Subject. — Sign painting does not consist 
merely of painting letters on sign boards or windows, but 
includes all classes of work, from the plain black lettering on 
the glass of an office door to the most artistic pictorial designs 
used on banners and other elaborate gold and silver signs. 
The sign painter must also be prepared to execute all manner 
of designs for the carver and stone cutter, and even portraiture 
enters into his industry for such purposes as campaign and 
society banners. 

2. Qualifications Necessary. — The sign painter should 
be a master of the art of designing, for, as we have already 
stated, under this head is embraced a general knowledge of all 
that is considered artistic. He should be thoroughly familiar 
with the use of colors, having due regard for their harmony and 
contrast, and also the many effects that can be produced by 
their unlimited combinations ; he should also be familiar with 
the result of applying one color over another, when one has 
been prepared so as to dry slowly, and the other prepared to 
dry quickly and with the results produced by the varied 
preparation of the priming, groundwork, and finishing coats, 
the mixing of colors for certain backgrounds, or the treatment 
of the material on which he is to letter. These and a great 
many other subjects, which constantly arise, must be met and 
fully understood, to fulfil the demands made on the successful 
and up-to-date sign painter. 

3. Experience and Theory. — While theoretical knowl- 
edge is the basis of all proficiency in the arts, yet much remains 
to be learned from experience. The physician is graduated 
from his college with a full knowledge of his profession, but his 

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 



2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

year or two of hospital service is incumbent on him before he 
is fully qualified to engage in private practice. We have 
therefore given in the Elements of Lettering the knowledge 
necessary to qualify the student that desires to become a 
practical letterer. But the instruction contained in the follow- 
ing pages is of such a practical nature as to advance him in 
lettering ; so that he may enter the sign shop beyond the year 
or two of servitude required, and, by a complete knowledge of 
the methods and formulas employed, be fitted to become at 
once of practical assistance to his employer. 



PRACTICE A^O) MATERIAL. 

4. Briisli Work. — It is necessary that the student 
desiring to a])})ly his knowledge of lettering especially to sign 
painting should become accustomed to the use of the brush 
and paint, by confining his practice to these materials as much 
as possible. It is only *by constant practice that the hand 
becomes skilled in the use of the brush in forming straight 
lines and curves with accuracy, in order to give to each letter 
its proportionate Avidth and uniform stroke. 

5. Binislies Required. — The brushes for practice work 
should be as follows : the small brush, capable of making a 
letter from 3 to 6 inches in height, having a quill -^^ inch in 
diameter, and hair f inch long ; and the large brush, with a 
quill 1^ inch in diameter, and hair ^ inch long. Cut off ^ 
length of quill, after softening in warm water to prevent it from 
splitting. This will allow the handle (which must be carefully 
fitted in quill) to turn freely in the fingers without touching 
the quill Avith the ends of the fingers, which would, on account 
of the imperfect quill, roll unevenly in the fingers and thus 
destroy a perfect line or curve. The brush should be cleaned 
in turpentine before, as well as after, using ; and, to prevent 
it from drying or hardening when not in use, it should be 
dipped in kerosene oil after cleaning. 

6. Card Black. — The color known among letterers as 
card black will be found to be a good preparation for practice 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



work. This color flows freely from the brush, is an intense 
black, and dries with a glossy surface a few moments after 
the application. It may be pre^jared by the student as follows : 
Use a vessel that will hold at least ^ pint ; in this put coach 
black (ground in japan), in bulk, equal to a large English 
walnut ; add three times this quantity of best asphaltum, 
also about a tablespoonful of best coach japan. Stir until 
thoroughly mixed, and thin this with a small quantity of 
turpentine until it becomes equal to the consistency of cream, 
or so that it will flow freely from the brush. Put this mixture 
in a large-neck bottle with screw-cap or cork top. This should 
always be well shaken before it is used. Another preparation 
known as ' ' Letterine ' ' is also an excellent mixture. 

7. Paper. — The light Manila paper, white cardboard, or 
the ordinary white flat j)apers will serve the purpose for 
practice work. With the exception of cardboard, these should 
be securely fastened to the drafting table before beginning 
to practice. 

METHODS USED T^ SIGK PAINTIXG. 



TOOLS NECESSARY. 



GENTEKAIi TOOLS AKD APPIilAXCES. 

8. Principal Tools Necessarj\ — The principal tools 
necessary for sign painting and lettering are the T square, 
boxwood square, the compass with pencil attachment, straight- 
edge, yardstick, 30° and 45° triangles, easel, and drafting table. 
With these tools, one is prepared to letter all ordinary signs 
that may be executed within the shop ; while those on the 
sides of buildings, too high to be reached with an ordinary 
ladder, require the use of a swing scaffold, tackle blocks, and 
ropes. Trestle horses and plank are also used for work above 
the reach of the step-ladder. The T square with swivel top and 
thumbscrew can be adjusted to any angle, and will be found a 
very useful tool. Three compasses, at least, should be used ; 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



the largest (the wood compass) should be capable of an expan- 
sion of 3 feet. The sign easel should be made of extra-heavy 
material, as the weight put upon it is sometimes very heavy. 
The drafting table should be constructed high enough to avoid 
the necessity of the letterer getting into a stooping position 
when working. This table should be built 3 feet 2 inches high 
in front, and with the view of the letterer always standing up 
while working on it. For close work, which can be done as 
well, or better, while sitting, a lower table should be used, 
adjusted accordingly ; in either case the incline should not 
exceed 6 inches rise in 20 inches width. 

9. ImproAasecl Appliances. — There are many tools and 
contrivances used in a sign shop that an inventive brain can 
always improvise, such as the arm rest, which is a strip about 
3 inches wide b}' 1 inch thick, with blocks underneath each 
end, thick enough to raise this rest above the sign on which the 
letterer is working ; the adjustal)le frame, on which cloth signs 
are stretched w'hile being lettered, which is a frame usually 
fastened at each corner by setscrews ; the glass sign racks, used 
to hold glass signs and insure their safety during the process 
of lettering ; or the adjustable frame used to hold finished 
work, etc. The ordinary tools necessary in a sign shop, such 
as palette knives, palettes, etc., are too well understood to need 
any description. A solid table, with a firm, level top, about 
18 in. X 24 in., covered with plate glass, will be found very 
useful in mixing colors ; if made light and portable, this can 
bo used conveniently by placing it beside the work on which 
the letterer may be engaged. 



BRTJSIIES. 

10. Caiuel's-llair 3>riislies. — We will first consider the 
brushes to be used for lettering. Of those used exclusively for 
this purpose, the most connnon variety is the ordinary camel' s- 
hair brush. These are the least expensive, and range in size 
from the f-inch, known as No. 7, to the "swan quill," which is 
the most stocky quill brush in use for lettering. The "goose 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



quills" are made in four sizes, Nos. 7, 5, 3, 1. No. 1 is a |-inch 
quill vdih. hair 1^ inches long. 

11. Ox-Hair Writers. — The " ox- hair writers" are 
similar to the camel's hair in size and numbers, but are harder 
to "break in," or bring into perfect working order, and are 
used to best advantage in heavy color, such as white lead. 

12. Superfine Bi-own-Sable Writers. — The "superfine 
brown-sable writers ' ' are also of four sizes. Their numbers are 
1, 4, 6, 8, and their lengths correspond with the camel' s-hair 
brushes. These will be found excellent brushes, and when 
thoroughly broken in will give good service ; while the camel's 
hair are unreliable in lasting quality, but serve the purpose 
where the brown sable are of no use. This is especially true 
when used for lettering on japanned tins, glass, or other 
smooth surfaces. 

13. Red-Sable Brushes. — For lettering in water colors 
as well as oil, the long- handled red-sable brushes are preferable. 
These range in sizes numbered from 1 to 12, successively. The 
hair of No. 1 is ^ inch long, while that of No. 12 is {} inch 
long. These brushes are well made, and generally give satis- 
faction. The flat red-sable brushes are chisel- shaped, and for 
use in making a letter, such as the Old English, will be found 
of great advantage. 

14. Swan Quill. — The swan quill (camel's hair) referred 
to, will be found invaluable, both in lettering and striping, on 
account of the great amount of color it can be made to retain. 
These brushes are used with light flowing color only, and to use 
them in any color made with white lead would ruin them at 
once. They are made especially for sign painters, in two sizes, 
f inch and 1 inch long, and one size made for carriage stripers 
is 2 inches long. 

15. Otliei' Brushes. — The fitch and bristle varnish 
brushes are used for lettering on cloth signs, and other large 
letters ; and, on account of their size and chisel shape, can be 
used with great rapidity, and will give the work an appearance 
of neatness and cleanliness. The only other brushes used by 



6 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

the sign painter are the pound brush, which is necessary to coat 
sign boards or other plain surfaces ; the round and flat sash 
tools ; the fitch, or flat bristle brush ; and the flat hearts-hair 
brush (made exclusively for varnishing purposes). These 
constitute all the brushes re(iuired for sign painting and letter- 
ing, except the round duster, the several varieties of gilding 
brushes, blenders, stipplers, etc. 



THE T SQTJAKE. 

16. On all signs having either a square top or bottom, the 
T square can be used, not only for marking out the letters, but 
also for guiding the hand in using the brush, though to accom- 
plish this perfectly requires much practice. It will be advisable, 
therefore, that the student take pains to acquire this method, 
and become accustomed to the position of the hand, and the 
manner in which the brush should be held. Fig. 1 shows this 
position. The brush is held between the thumb and the first 
finger, the handle pointing towards the letterer, allowing the 
three fingers to guide the hand along the edge of the T-square 
blade. The left hand is used to secure the square in position, 
either by holding it firmly at the head when working on a 
narrow sign, or at the end of the blade when working on 
a wide sign, which will prevent the square from slipping if the 
forefinger is rested against the bottom of the sign board as 
shown. By the use of the T square and this method of striping, 
the letterer can draw all vertical and angle lines, having first, 
by the same method, striped all horizontal lines, using a 
straightedge for this purpose instead of the T square, but main- 
taining the same position of the hand and brush. The block, 
half-block, and all straight-line letters of any style can be made 
with great rapidity in this manner. 



POSITIOSr OF HANDS. 

17. The left hand should rest in an easy position, project- 
ing the little finger, to steady it ; this also gives a greater scope 
in making a stroke. The right hand should rest comfortably 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 




8 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



on the left, and be arranged in such a manner that the little 
finger of the right will come between the thumb and the 
forefinger of the left hand, holding the brush in the same 
position as in writing, as shown in Fig. 2. 

18. Although this may seem somewhat awkward at first, it 
will be found, on practicing a little, that it is the most natural 
and comfortable position, as w^ell as the one by Avhich the best 
work can be accomplished. It allows perfect freedom of the 
hand in making all strokes of the letter, giving a greater scojDe 
in making large letters than any other position or method ; it 




1?55«' 



Fig. 2. 



also forms a rest, giving the letterer entire control over his 
brush. By constant practice, a perfectly straight line may be 
drawn with the brush, either vertically or horizontally. When 
making letters under 1 inch in height, it is best to use but one 
liand in the position used while Avriting ; and a red-sable brush, 
from No. 1 to 5, according to the size of letter, will be found to 
fill the requirements for small lettering. 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



STRIPING. 

19. There are but two methods of stripmg with a brush, 
both of which are employed by the sign painter. The first of 
these, and the one most generally used, is shown in Fig. 1. By 
this method, the brush is drawn over the surface, spreading its 
hairs somewhat, and touching with almost the entire brush 
length, the letterer at the same time being careful to keep the 
width uniform. In some cases, when striping by this method, 




Fig. 3. 

it is necessary only to observe the line made by the brush on 
one side, as in lettering or striping to the edge of the letter. 
This system the carriage painter uses exclusively, and foi" a 
brush he uses the one known as the sivord pencil, a long 
flat brush with which he can make the stripe called the fine 
line, which is almost a hair line. 

20. To accomplish the same results, the sign painter 
employs an entirely different method, producing equally as 
fine and perfect a stripe, but using the point of the lettering 
brush, or pencil, called also the writer, by holding the brush at 



10 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

a right angle with the surface on which he is working, and 
allowing the fingers to guide the hand. The brush used for 
this method must be one that is either drawn to a slight 
chisel-shaped end, and turned edgewise to produce the finest 
line possible, or one that possesses a good point, which will not 
allow any of the hairs to spread while using. 

21. Great care should be used in the selection of brushes 
for any class of work, either lettering or striping. Fig. 3 shows 
the other method of striping referred to. It will be good 
practice for the student to lay a straightedge on a sheet of 
cardboard, and draw the fine line, by observing the position 
shown in Fig. 3, until the perfectly straight hair line has been 
mastered. This Avill require considerable practice. Use the 
same brush, well filled with water or oil color, and practice the 
broad stripe by the method shown in Fig. 1. The brush for 
this purpose should be rather large, as a small one will not 
spread the color to the full width of the stripe desired. The 
effort to accomplish this by means of a brush that is too small 
will cause an irregular or w^avy stripe ; while the large 
brush will make the broad stripe with the hair in its normal 
position, and no great pressure, therefore, is required. 



COI.OKS. 



CLASSmCATIOX OF COLORS. 

22. The Primary, Secondary, and Neutral Colors. 

Colors are divided into three classes, nameh' : primary, sec- 
ondary, and neutral. The semineutral, holding a place between 
the secondary and the neutral, is classed with the latter. 

The primary colors are red, yellow, and blue. By a mixture 
of any two of these the secondary colors can be produced ; and, 
by. the addition of white and black in combination with the 
primary or secondary colors, all neutral colors, shades, and 
tints are produced. A combination of red and yellow pro- 
duces the secondary orange. A combination of yellow and 
blue produces green. A combination of red and blue produces 
purple. The union of black and white produces lead color. 



§2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 11 

A combination of the three primary colors produces a neutral 
color, by using a proper quantity of each in proportion to its 
strength. A combination of the three primary in unequal 
proportions produces colors known as tertiary colors. 

23. Color. — The trade term color always refers to any 
mixture that will produce each separate hue by compounding 
the primary and secondary colors ; while the spectrum shades of 
the colors always refer to the blending of the primary and 
secondary colors, in the following order : red, orange, yellow, 
green, blue, indigo, and violet. These colors make twenty- 
one distinct shades. 

24. Producing Shades. — The various shades of a color 
are formed by mixing a strong primary or secondary color with 
white, making several shades of different strength until the 
color has become indistinct, when it is termed a tint. A com- 
bination of red and green produces brown. Of this color there 
are many shades. The burnt and raw umber, and burnt and 
raw sienna, when in their natural, or raw, state are brown 
pigments, but, by chemical treatment, the burnt, or darker, 
shade of each is produced. 

25. Semineiitral Coloi's. — Brown, gray, and maroon, 
also the color produced by mixing blue and green neutrally, 
give rise to the other classification, called the semineutral colors. 
From the six principal colors come the great variety of colors 
into which each principal color is subdivided. 

26. Warni and Cold Colors. — Colors are in harmony 
with each other when they partake of the same general effect, 
such as the chrome yellow and sienna, chrome yellow and 
umber, or such colors or tints partaking of the red or yellow, 
called warm colors, or those of the opposite nature, which 
partake of gray, lead color, green, blue, etc. , producing colors or 
tints that are called cold in their effect or tone. 

27. Contrast. — Colors are in contrast when warm and 
,cold colors are used in connection with each other, although 
all such colors may not be so used without producing a hetero- 
geneous effect, as certain shades of red and green, blue and green. 



12 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



blue and red, etc. are most discordant to the eye when placed 
close together. Coloring, therefore, is a study that can be accom- 
plished only by close observation and experiment. Just as the 
professional musician produces some combined sounds that 
thrill us, so the professional colorist produces effects that are 
beyond the comprehension of the unskilled. More particularly 
is this true of the coloring displayed by the artist that imitates 
nature. He may, by the art of coloring, not only deceive the 
eye but produce combinations that will be most pleasing to it. 



HANDLING OF COLORS. 



HARMOXY AND CONTRAST. 

28. Scope of Subject. — The handling of colors, in. the 
full sense of the word, does not mean simply the knowledge of 
the many ways colors can best be applied to a surface, but 
involves a knowledge of the nature of the colors themselves, the 
effect of the elements on each, and the relation they bear to one 
another. This relation in colors classifies them as either 
harmonizing or contrasting with one another. A colorist should 
understand the result and drying effects of placing one mixture 
on another, each having as a base an entirely different medium 
or liquid. All of these details must be considered by the 
painter, and many annoyances and serious complications can be 
avoided by bearing in mind the following important instructions. 

29. Tlie Drj'ing' Qualities of Colors. — Colors mixed 
with slow-drying liquids, such as oils or varnishes, can be 
covered with a coat of the same color, when the first is dry, 
even though quite tacky. But to cover this surface, if not 
perfectly dry, with a color mixed with some quick-drying japan 
or varnish, will produce a crackled, pebbled, or uneven surface 
when it does dry. One color should be perfectly dry, therefore, 
before another is applied. The same result will be produced 
should a slow-drying color be placed over a quick, if the first 
coat is not perfectly dry before the second is applied. This 
can easily be understood^ as the quick color possesses a 



§2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 13 

contracting or shrinking character in drying, while the slow 
color, mixed with oil or varnish, is of a flowing or expanding 
nature. As the under color continues to dry out after being 
covered over, its contraction causes the result described above. 

30. Durability. — Colors mixed with the best coach varnish 
will stand longer when exposed to the weather than when mixed 
with any other material, and raw or boiled linseed oil stands 
next in value for the same purpose ; but japan or turpentine as 
a mixture will produce colors with little durability. English 
vermilion is a color that cannot be used for outside purposes 
with any assurance of its remaining long or holding its original 
brilliancy. This color is a pigment of mercury and sulphur, 
and when exposed to the elements bleaches out to a dull pink, 
about the strength of flesh color. The American, or aniline, 
vermilion is one of the many products of coal tar, and its effect 
is directly opposite to the English vermilion, for after exposure 
to the elements this vermilion turns a very dark brown. These 
effects may be somewhat compensated by mixing the two 
together in relative proportions to render them neutral, but at 
best the color is not one to be used freely for outside work. 

31. Lampblack will outwear all colors. It is often seen on 
signs that have stood many years of exposure, where the black 
has remained with a good surface, while the three or four coats 
of ground color have entirely disappeared, together with por- 
tions of the weather-beaten wood, giving the sign an embossed 
appearance. Blues as a rule are not lasting, while all other 
colors may be considered of about equal durability. 



GROUND FINISHES. 



SMARTING. 

32. Preparation. — Smalting consists of covering over a 
freshly painted surface with fine sand that has been dyed a 
suitable color. This process, though simple, is of the greatest 
importance to the sign painter, as he can thereby produce a 
ground that gives a most finished appearance to his work, 



14 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

causing rough or uneven sign boards to j)resent a smooth sur- 
face. The success of smalting depends largely on the color 
upon which the smalt is to be placed. This color is called the 
"cutting-in color," and should always be mixed fresh and 
prepared as follows : The best refined lampblack is mixed with 
boiled linseed oil, and ground on a marble or plate-glass table, 
with a palette knife, until all lumps and specks have disappeared. 
The mixture should be thick enough to grind easily, and not 
flow or spread out on the table surface. To each half cup of 
color, add a lump of white lead equal in size to an English 
walnut, and add to this equal parts of boiled oil and coach 
japan, so as to give the mixture a consistency that will allow it 
to flow freely from the brush, but still retain a good body. 
This mixture can be used for black, blue, or dark-green smalt 
without changing. For brown smalt, twice the quantity of 
white lead should be added, colored strongly with Indian red. 
For light-green smalt, green or yellow should be used in place 
of Indian red. 

33. Method of Application. — After the letters are cut 
in on the sign, this color is spread evenly over the ground, 
care being exercised not to allow any ridges of color to form 
at the edge of the brush. A small pencil brush can be used 
to cut in the letters, no matter how large they may be, and 
a flat soft brush is afterwards used for filling in the back- 
ground, the latter varying in size according to the sign. After 
the sign is filled in, strips of Manila paper or enamel cloth 
are spread on the table or floor, and the sign is so laid over 
them that one edge is on the paper or cloth. The smalt is 
then sifted on evenly over the entire surface through a small- 
mesh wire sieve. After remaining a few moments, all the sur- 
plus smalt is removed by tipping the sign edgewise and shaking 
the smalt on the paper. 

Black smalt is used more than any other color, but is more 
likely to show defects. The use of smalt that has been kept in 
a damp place for some time without first drying thoroughly, 
will cause streaks of gray to appear in the finished sign, for 
which there is no remedy. In smalting, care should always be 



§2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 15 

exercised not to cover the sign thickly enough to break the 
edge of the letter by its weight, when the surplus is tipped 
or thrown off. 

The edge or band of a smalted sign should invariably be 
painted with colors mixed with varnish, giving a glossy finish 
to it. Black is usually used for this purpose, especially on 
signs smalted with black or dark blue. 

34. Flock. — On signs exposed to the weather, smalt is the 
only material that can be used for this purpose. For inside 
signs, however, a material known as "flock" is used; this is 
a ground cloth that can be obtained in several colors, although 
the maroon and black are most commonly used. Flock is 
applied to signs in the same manner as smalt, but the cutting-in 
color on which the maroon is placed must be made to match 
the color of the flock as nearly as possible. 



VARIEGATED GROUSTDS. 

35. Variegated grounds are often used on large advertising 
signs, as Avell as on many kinds of stenciled signs. The color of 
the background when the sign is finished must govern the 
selection of the variegating colors. If the ground when finished 
is to be blue, cream and lemon tints, with possibly a touch of 
sienna or orange, may be used. If the ground is to be black, 
two or three shades of green, or, in fact, almost any color can be 
used. A maroon ground, with a variegated blue letter, makes a 
most pleasing combination. 

36. Two coats of white lead are applied to the ground 
before the variegating colors are applied, and then three colors 
are laid on lengthwise of the line to be lettered, giving equal 
surface to each color. The top is white, the bottom is a 
medium shade of the variegating color, and the intermediate 
shade is placed betAveen these, and is then blended where the 
colors come together, beginning with the lightest. When 
the sign is "cut in" and finished, each letter will appear as 
though it were shaded separately. 



16 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

PREPARATION OF SURFACES. 

37. Foundation Work. — There are many kinds of sur- 
faces to be dealt with in lettering, for the letterer may be called 
on to place letters upon an}'' solid material known. A sign 
board when first turned over to the sign painter from the sign 
carpenter may possess solid knots or streaks of pitch, either of 
which will show through many coats of color unless their 
penetrating quality is destroyed. This is done with orange 
shellac, applied after the board has been thoroughly dusted off. 
When the shellac is chy, the sign is ready for the first coat of 
paint, called the priming coat. This must invariably be white 
lead mixed with boiled linseed oil only. When this has been 
dried and the board has been run over lightly with sandpaper 
and dusted, all nail holes or other defects are filled with putty, 
after which the second coat is applied, and should be mixed 
with one-fourth turpentine to three-fourths boiled oil. This 
coat is sandpapered also, and the third, or finishing, coat is 
then applied, which is a mixture quite reversed from that used 
for the second coat. The third coat should consist of about 
two-thirds turpentine to one- third boiled oil, and will insure a 
flat- or dull-finished surface to work on. 

38. Defects. — A glossy surface might cause trouble, if 
allowed to stand some time before being lettered, as the jilacing 
of one oil color upon another is liable to cause the second one 
to creep, that is, to leave the ground surface, causing large or 
small pitted spots to appear. This may be avoided by 
rubbing the surface with curled hair, or with pumice stone 
and water, or by dusting a small quantity of whiting over it. 
White enameled oilcloth is used extensively for lettering pur- 
poses ; to insure against the above difficulty, benzine or 
turpentine should be rubbed on the surface with cotton cloth 
or batting. 

39. French Enamel White Finish. — If a French 
enamel white finish is desired, the sign should be painted 
evenly Avith three coats as above, followed with three coats of 
white "rough stuff," applied as paint. A coat of lead color, 
known as the guide coat, should then be applied. This should 



§2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 17 

be rubbed down with white kimp-pumice stone and water 
until the lead color has entirely disappeared, the day following 
its application. For finishing this surface, equal parts of 
Florence and zinc white are mixed in special light rubbing 
varnish, prepared especially for white. One coat of this 
mixture is applied, and the day following is again rubbed 
with the ground pumice. If not evenly covered, a second coat 
of the zinc and Florence white is necessary and also another 
rubbing, after which one coat of light English finishing varnish, 
colored well with the zinc and Florence white, is flowed on, 
enough only of the white being used to change the color of the 
varnish, but not enough to make it a solid color. 

40. Carriage- or Piano-Body Finisli. — To make a 
carriage- or piano-body finish, the sign should be painted with 
three coats of white lead, as previously directed, adding black 
enough to produce a lead color, after which the surface is given 
several coats of ordinary ' ' rough stuff. ' ' At least four coats of 
rough stuff should be applied before giving it the guide coat of 
black or red. It is then rubbed down with lump pumice and 
water, after which the sign is ready for the finishing coats. 
If a black finish is desired, the surface is given a coat of coach 
black ground in Japan. This is followed with two coats of 
rubbing varnish, colored well with black, each coat being 
rubbed with ground pumice and water (using the curled hair 
for the rubbing). One coat of best coach finishing varnish 
is then flowed on in a room of high temperature and free 
from dust or draft. When the sign is dry, it possesses the 
finest finish possible to produce, if the work has been properly 
done. Should any color other than black be desired, the color 
may be substituted in place of the black on the first coat after 
rubbing down the rough stuff. The rubbing varnish should 
also be colored accordingly. This process can be used on all 
sheet-metal or iron surfaces, on which the roughness may be 
overcome by filling well with a putty made of white lead and 
whiting laid on with a wide-blade putty knife. 

41. Frosting on Glass. — This is a process by which 
lettering is made to show in a conspicuous manner, and also 



18 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

serves tlie purpose of a door transparency, or it is often placed 
on windows opening into a hall or area. By the use of sour 
beer and Epsom salt, a frosting may be produced that closely 
resembles the fantastic marking of the natural frost on the 
window pane ; but the frosting usually applied by the sign 
painter is produced by the use of sugar of lead (in tube) or 
white lead. The former, having less body (or substance), is 
made to imitate more closely the frosting produced by the 
sand-blast process, and is applied with a brush as thin and 
evenly as possible, and stippled w'ith a brush made especially 
for this purpose, or with a pad of unsized cotton cloth filled 
with cotton butting. White lead used for this purpose should 
be mixed with 2 parts boiled oil to 1 part turpentine, and 
applied in the same way as sugar of lead, ^^''hen it is desired 
to show the lettering most prominently, tlie white lead is used, it 
being when applied opaque, and nuieh whiter than sugar of lead. 



SIZES FOK GILDING. 



GIL.DIXG MATKlt. 

42. In the preparation of size for gilding on glass, the 
greatest care must be observed to avoid the existence of the 
smallest particle of oil in the vessel in which it is made. In 
fact, the most 6crui)ulous cleanliness is necessary throughout 
the preparation of the size, as the faintest trace of any foreign 
matter will materially injure the gilding. 

Size for glass gilding is prepared by dissolving, in a pint of 
pure water, a piece of Russian isinglass aljout the size of a 
silver dime. The vessel containing the water is then placed 
over a gas stove, coal fire, or other device that will heat it 
rapidl}^ to the boiling j)oint. After boiling about thirty seconds 
it is removed from the fire, and allowed to cool ; it should then 
be strained through a perfectly clean piece of muslin, after 
Avhich it is ready for use. This gilding water or size must be 
prepared fresh every day, as it is practically useless after 
twenty-four hours, and should always be made with distilled, 
rain, or melted-ice water, the first being preferred. 



§2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 19 

SIZE rOR OIL. GILDING. 

43. Sizes for gilding on wood or metal are of two kinds, 
known as slow size and quick size. The former is used when 
the sign or surface to be gilded is large, and will require con- 
siderable time to complete the gilding ; while the latter is used 
on small zinc or japanned iron signs, where the letters are small 
and the entire gilding can be completed in from one to five hours. 

44. Slow Size. — Slow size is made from boiled linseed 
oil. The oil is allowed to stand in a warm place until it is of 
about the consistency of molasses, and is then called fat oil. 
Equal quantities of fresh boiled oil and coachmakers' japan are 
mixed together ; this mixture and the fat oil are then united 
in equal proportions, together with a sufficient quantity of 
chrome yellow to render it easily seen during its application to 
the surface to be gilded. These, when thoroughly stirred 
together, will form a size that will stand from fifteen to twenty- 
four hours. The drying qualities of the slow size are influenced 
by the temperature in which it is allowed to stand. 

45. Use of Slow Size. — In using this slow size, it must 
not be allowed to flow thickly over the surface, but should be 
brushed out evenly to cover the entire surface, to which it is 
applied to an even depth. If one part is more thickly coated 
than another, it will not dry to the surface of the sign, and will 
afterward break through the gilding when the surplus gold leaf 
is being removed, or when the gold is burnished. This size will 
keep ready for use for a long period if placed in a corked bottle 
or tightly capped jar. 

46. Quick Size. — Quick size is made in several ways, 
according to the length of time required for it to dry. This is 
of course governed largely by the amount of work ahead of the 
letterer to be gilded. About 30 drops of boiled oil added to 
^ ounce of Hedden & Wheeler's japan gold size Avill prepare a 
size that will dry in about two hours. This can be made 
quicker drying by reducing the quantity of oil. But to add 
oil in excess of the quantity prescribed above will produce an 



20 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

unreliable mixture, so that another preparation is necessary for 
slower size. The above size should be colored with a little 
orange or lemon chrome yellow, well mixed together on a glass 
surface by the use of a palette knife. 

47. A Medium-Slow Size. — Another size that will stand 
longer than the above is prej^ared by stirring, in ^ ounce of 
coach finishing varnish, about 30 drops of coachmakers' japan. 
This will stand four or five hours. In all work of importance 
it is advisable to test the size upon a piece of the material to be 
gilded, in order that the length of time it will stand may be 
accurately known. Different surfaces require different sizes. 
Some work requires a size that will stand for twenty-four hours, 
while on another material it should be ready to gild in three 
hours or sooner. The reason for this is that slow size cannot 
be made to produce an even or sharp edge on smooth surfaces. 
This size may be preserved in a tight jar in the same manner 
as the one previously described, though it has a much stronger 
tendency to become thickened. Better work can be produced 
with quick size, freshly prepared, as it not only flows from the 
brush more freely, but is also more reliable in drying. Either 
of the foregoing quick sizes may be thinned, if necessary, with 
a little turpentine, but too much turpentine will destroy the 
luster of the gold. 

48. Proper Materials Kecessary. — It will be observed, 
by one familiar Avith the action of the elements on certain 
colors, that size used for signs on the exterior of buildings will 
show the effect of the elements very soon after its exposure to 
the weather, if it has been improperly prepared. A common 
mistake is the use of yellow size for aluminum leaf or bronze, 
which is likely to show through the face of this metal. Size 
for such materials should he made with about 2 ounces of 
light coach varnish, to which is added a piece of pure white 
lead as large as an English walnut, and about a spoonful of 
japan gold size and the same quantity of turpentine. The leaf 
or bronze should be applied while the size holds a strong tacky 
surface, and is just dry enough so that bronze will not sliow an 
uneven surface when applied. The bronze must always be put 



§2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 21 

on the surface in large quantities, with a chamois-skin pad filled 
with cotton. If used too sparingly, the surface will present a 
clouded appearance, which cannot be overcome or remedied. 

49. The size for gold bronze should be the same as that 
used for gold leaf, but colored with lemon chrome yellow. 
For copper bronze, use orange chrome, darkened with a little 
Indian red, which produces a color resembling somewhat the 
copper bronze. 



GILDING. 



GILDING OiV GLASS. 

50. Gold Leaf. — The gold leaf used for this purpose 
should be of the best qualit}^ The gold beater usually pre- 
pares two grades of leaf ; that used for this purpose is not 
beaten as thin as the ordinary leaf used on wood. The thin 
leaf will break easily in the process of laying on glass, not 
only causing considerable annoyance, but also involving 
extra expense. It is therefore desirable that the leaf made 
especially for this purpose should be obtained direct from 
the manufacturer. 

5 1 . Tools and Materials Necessary. — To lay gold leaf 
on glass several things are necessary : first^ the tip, which is a 
long-hair brush, capable of holding a full-sized leaf of gold ; 
second, the gilding brush, which is a soft camel' s-hair brush, 
about IJ inches wide ; and third, a handful of soft well-carded 
cotton batting for rubbing the gold. Tlie tip will not pick up 
the leaf froni the book unless prepared first to do so. This is 
done by drawing the tip across the head, at the same time 
pressing the hair of the tip so as to allow some of the 
natural oil of the human hair to adhere to it. Gold leaf being 
extremely sensitive to the touch, the most trifling amount of 
adhesive is all that is necessary, as too much will give rise to 
serious trouble by causing the leaf to adhere to the tip too 
persistently, or by the oil coming in contact with the surface 
of the glass, and destroying the luster of the gold, or even by 



22 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

provonting it from adhoving to the glass at all. Gold leaf is 
very frail material to handle, and therefore great eaution is 
neeessar}' in its application. 

52. Molhoil of l*roeotluiv. — The design or inscription 
to he gilded is placed on the reverse side of the glass hy means 
of a perforated pattern, through Avhicli Avhiting is pounced, thus 
showing the outline of the letters or parts to he gilded ; or the 
design may be marked out Avith ordinary Avhite chalk or the 
lithographer's black crayon pencil, which -will readily leave a 
mark on a glass surface. The surface on which the gilding is to 
be done must be perfectly cleaned by removhig all possibility of 
oil or even linger marks. The book of gold leaf is laid on a flat 
surface, with tlie opening toward the right. One leaf of the 
book is folded back and creased with the left hand, thus 
exposing the gold. The cutting of the leaf is then accomplished 
with the little-linger nail oi the right hand, hy running the 
nail along on the gold, using the folded book leaf for a guide. 
The jnece of gold so cut is picked up with the tip (Avhich is 
held in the hand during the cutting process) and laid on the 
glass lightly, after having lirst covered the part to receive the 
gold with a copious coat of the size, the preparation of which 
is treated \nuler heading " Gilding "Water." The brush used 
in the size is usually a l^inch flat camel's-hair. All letters 
should be covered Avith a liberal supply of gold leaf, alloAving 
it to overlap the marking. "When the size under the gold is 
perfectly dry, the surface should be Avell rubbed Avith cotton 
batting, Avhich Avill remove all scrap leaf that has not adhered 
or that has overlapped, and a\ ill expose to vicAV any spaces or 
j^arts that have not been properly covered. The size is then 
flowed all over the Avork (beginning at the bottom), and gold 
is laid on all spaces that have not been previously covered. 
When this is dry, a second rubbing Avith the cotton Avill remove 
the surplus. A third or f(.>urth Avashing of size does no harm 
to the gold, and Avhen diluted Avith warm water, jiroduees a 
brilliant burnished ciYect. 

5o. 8hoot-(.Ua8s Siij-iis. — If gilding has been done on a 
sheet of glass to be used for a framed sign, the pattern must 



§2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING, 23 

again he pounced with whiting over the gold leaf, which 
furnishes a guide, Bhovving the place occupied by the letters. 
To prepare a paint to letter over gold leaf on a window that is 
exposed to frost (the great enemy of window gilding), a slow- 
drying varnish, colored well with lemon or orange chrome 
yellow, should be used, and when dry the gold leaf extending 
beyond the letters can be cleaned off easily with water, a little 
whiting, and cotton batting. For a backing or lettering color 
for framed glass signs, a quick-drying varnish or asphaltum 
black can be used. As these signs are not exposed to the 
elements, almost any color can be used on them. A color is 
preferable, however, that is made the shade of the gold leaf, and 
that will not be seen when the sign is finished, should any 
small cracks or spots have been left in the gilding that would 
be considered too small to regild. 



GILDING OX WOOD OR METAL,. 

54. Method of Procedure. — Having considered the use 
of the tip and handling of gold leaf for gilding on glass, we will 
now consider its application to a wood or metal surface. 

The manner in which the gold is laid on these materials 
differs. The slow size will allow us to cover the whole sign 
with_ gold leaf, before rubbing down to a burnished surface ; 
and, if the letters are large enough to take the whole leaf with- 
out much waste, the letters can be gilded from the book without 
the use of the tip, by turning the leaf back and placing the 
book face downwards on the size, rolling the leaf on gradually, 
so as not to break it. When the sign is entirely covered, a 2-inch 
bear's-hair brush is used to remove the surplus, and the whole 
gilded surface is well rubbed. This will take the superfluous 
scrap, carrying it along the letters, filling in all cracks or small 
spots that may have been overlooked, and, if these are not too 
large, will not show when the gold is burnished. After rubbing 
with the brush, a handful of cotton batting should be used, and 
the gold rubbed with this until no laps or spots are seen. 

55. Oildini^ oil Quick Size. — To gild on quick size, gild 
the first two letters rapidly, rubbing df)wn the first letter only ; 



24 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

proceed immediately to gild the third, afterwards rubbing down 
the second, and so on until the sign is gilded. The reason for 
doing this is that, if the gold were allowed to remain too long 
on quick size before buntishing, it would have a wrinkled 
appearance, caused b}' the action of the size while drying, and 
thereby drawing the gold, which is prevented when the surface 
is covered evenly with gold and burnished. Aluminum leaf, 
which is considerably tougher than gold leaf, can be applied on 
several letters before burnishing. 

56. Outside Gilding. — For outside gilding, or gilding 
in places where the wind is strong enough to prevent both the 
use of the tip and the process of gildmg from the book, another 
method is followed. This is accomplished by cutting wax 
paper in sheets large enough to leave a margin of ^ inch beyond 
the edge of the gold leaf, which is applied to the wax paper by 
carefully laying the wax paper on it and pressing it evenl3^ 
The w^axed gold leaf is then placed in an empty book and is 
ready for use. The size being more tacky than the wax surface 
of the paper, the leaf of gold will leave the paper and adhere to 
the size by pressing the waxed leaf with the hand. After the 
letters have been entirely covered, they should be rubbed down 
as described, using the bear's-hair rubbing brush and cotton 
batting, as in other gilding. 



PEAEL FTLUXG AXD ETRT7SCAX GILDDfG. 

57. Pearl Filling. — The pearl filling often seen in the 
most elaborate Avindow lettering is not in such general use 
today as in former years, as it has been supplanted somewhat 
by the Etruscan gilding, which consists of a dull or chased 
filling within an outline of bright gold. The material used for 
pearl filling must be the best quality mother of pearl in 
perfectly flat and thin pieces, and applied after the letters are 
gilded, shaded, and otherwise finished. The open strokes of 
the letters are coated with a light-colored coach varnish (to 
"svhich a few drops of japan gold size have been added), over- 
lapping the edge of the strokes, but without covering the shade, 



§2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 25 

especially if the shade is of semitransparent colors. The 
varnish is then allowed to stand a few moments until it will 
take the pearl without danger of slipping. The pieces are then 
fitted to fill the space within the letters as nearly as possible. 
After one letter is covered, and before beginning on another, 
well-crumpled tin-foil is taken and covered over the entire 
back of the letters, and is pressed in well with the fingers, so as 
to force the foil in contact with the varnished surface of the 
glass. Do not finish more than one or two letters at a time, 
unless, however, there is positive surety of the dr3dng qualities 
of the varnish. The tin-foil filling gives the appearance of a 
solid pearl letter. 

58. Etruscan Gilding. — The Etruscan gilding produces 
a chased-gold or silver effect, and is accomplished by a simpler 
method than the foregoing. There have been many kinds of 
size suggested for this purpose, but the one producing the best 
results is sour beer, although either glucose water that has been 
allowed to stand some time, or a few drops of turpentine in 
ordinary gilding water may be used. The beer size is applied 
in the same manner as regular gilding water size, but the gilding 
must not be rubbed with cotton. To cover all places that may 
have been left in the first gilding, the part already gilded is 
covered with a second application of the beer size after the 
former has thoroughly dried, and any open spaces are then 
gilded over. When dry, this should be painted over with a 
varnish color, somewhat of the same shade as the gold. 

59. Finisliing Coat. — All lettering on glass should be 
well backed with a varnish color as a finishing coat, both to 
protect it from frost and from the wear caused by cleaning the 
glass. It is impossible to protect lettering on glass from even- 
tually peeling off, especially when certain conditions obtain ; 
but with extra caution, window-glass lettering may be made to 
stand for years. A coat of best coach varnish, overlapping the 
edge of the letters about ^^ of an inch on the clear glass, will 
prevent frost from penetrating underneath the edge of the 
letters, and thus hastening their tendency to peel. 



26 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



EMBOSSING. 



EMBOSSING ON BRASS PLATES. 

GO. Importance. — This work requires a greater amount 
of caution than any other branch of sign painting. Not only- 
are the materials expensive and mistakes costly, but the chem- 
icals with which the work is done are dangerous, and any 
improper use of them would be likely to impair the health or 
even destroy the eyes of the operator. Embossing on brass 
includes not only the preparation of the plate, but the etching 
and finishing of the brass. The best grade of engraving brass 
is required for this process, and gauge No. 16 is the thickness 
in most frequent use. This is yV o^ ^^^ i^^ch thick. The plate 
must be well buffed before lettering. The design should be 
made on medium-thick Manila pattern paper, and transferred 
to the brass plate by means of carbon transfer paper. After 
the design is transferred on to the plate, it is ready to cut in, 
preparatory to the etching process. 

61. Material Fsed for Resisting Acid. — Asphaltum 
black is used to protect the plate while in the acid bath, and 
must be applied with an even, solid surface, and not thinned 
more than is absolutely necessary. Use only the best quality 
of asphaltum, and thin with equal parts of coachmakers' japan 
and coach finishing varnish. The letters and other designs are 
cut in with this color, leaving the letter and stripes clear. The 
entire sign is then covered evenly to the edge, and allowed to 
dry twenty-four hours at least. The marks made by the 
tracing should then be removed Avith water. A new cotton 
cloth is then used to rub the entire surface, which is done to 
destroy the glossy surface of the first coat, in order that the 
second may be seen, after which a second coat of the asphaltum 
is applied with care, to keep as close to the edge of the first one 
as possible. The second coat is allowed to stand forty-eight 
hours, after which the sign is ready for the etching bath. 

A coating of beeswax is also used as a resist, and is applied 
to the brass, silver, or white-metal plate when hot. When this 
material is used, the design is traced through it on the surface 



§2 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



27 



of the metal by means of a stylus. The wax is used only 
when a line etching is desired, and is therefore more especially 
adapted to small work, on Avhich the letters are of miniature size. 

62. Etching. — The etching should be done in a room set 
apart for this exclusive purpose, as the fumes and gases given 
off during the process are extremel}^ unwholesome, and in fact 
very poisonous, and should never be inhaled. The sign to be 
etched is laid on a table, the top of which has been rendered 




Fig. 4. 

perfectly level, and over it is suspended a funnel-shaped hood, 
to collect the fumes and carry them off to the outside air or to 
a chimney flue. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 4, where 
h is the etching table under the hood a. At c is shown the 
vent that carries off the obnoxious vapors. 

63. Beeswax Dam. — The sign is now prepared by bank- 
ing up the edges with beeswax, all around the four sides, so as 
to give it the form of a shallow tray. The beeswax is prepared 
by melting together over a slow fire ^ pound of beeswax and 
^ pound of rosin, and adding about 3 fluid ounces of boiled oil. 
When thoroughly melted, this mixture is poured into a vessel 
of cold water, and is then ready for use. Should the mixture 
become too hard, by standing, to work easily (it should be 
about the consistency of putty), it may be remelted and a little 
more oil added. 



28 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

64. Use of th^ Acids. — Within the rim of wax, and over 
the entire surface of the sign, a mixture of 1 part nitric acid 
to 2 parts water is now poured to a depth of about J inch. 
The Hquid will immediately begin to effervesce, and strong 
pungent fumes of a yellowish color will rise from the surface. 
The hood should now be adjusted to receive and carry off these 
fumes, and the action of the acid be permitted to continue until 
the letters are ' ' eaten into ' ' the plate about -^2" ^o ^t ^^ ^^ 
inch, according to the depth desired. The depth of the letters 
may be determined by feeling their edges with a pointed tool of 
any kind, though care must be exercised not to scratch the 
asphalt surface. 

Should the action of the fluid for any reason be too slow, it 
may be hastened by pouring a small quantity of the pure acid 
on the surface of the plate, and stirring it around carefully with 
a whisk broom, or, if too strong, the acid may be diluted with 
water. Strong acid has a tendency to undercut the letters and 
destroy the sharpness of their edges. The etching, therefore, 
should not be done too quickly, for it should take three or four 
hours for the acid to eat the brass to a proper depth. 

65. Cleaning tlie Plate. — After the etching is complete, 
the plate is removed from the table, the acid is poured off (by 
breaking a small piece of ^he <yax dam out of the end), and the 
whole plate thoroughly wu. ""Mn cold water. The bath tray, 
previously prepared, is usually built of wood ; it should be 
large enough to receive the entire plate, and deep enough to 
hold 3 or 4 inches of water. The wax is then removed from 
the edges and saved for future use, and the asphalt coating 
wiped off after it has been thoroughly softened with turpentine. 
Should there be any slight imperfections in the surface of the 
plate, due to the action of the acid through an exposed place in 
the asphaltum, they can easily be removed (if they are not 
more than surface marks) on an ordinary buffing machine. 

66. Filling. — The etched letters are usually filled with 
black japan, which is afterAvard baked until it has the appear- 
ance of a vitreous mixture. This, however, is a separate business, 
and outside the province of the letterer. The etched letters are 



§2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 29 

sometimes filled by the letterer with gutter percha or a black 
made with patent dryer, though the results are not as good as 
with the other material. Gutta-percha filling is made and 
applied as follows : Take equal parts gutta percha and 
asphaltum, and melt together in an iron pot, with about one- 
quarter their bulk of finely powdered gum shellac, and while 
the mixture is still hot it is penciled in the letters. Should a 
red or blue filling be required, the asphaltum can be replaced 
with vermilion or cobalt blue, according to the one required. 



EMBOSSING Olf GLASS. 

6T. Bifluoric Acid. — The preliminary details and 
arrangements for embossing on glass are precisely the same 
as previously described for etching brass, with the exception 
of the acid. Bifluoric acid is an intensely corrosive compound 
that will dissolve every glassy substance it comes in contact 
with. It is usually put up in lead or rubber flasks, and can 
be purchased only in the original packages. For use, the acid 
is diluted to the proportion of 2 parts acid to 3 parts water, 
though, if this is not strong enough, the proportion of acid may 
be increased. If the etching fluid is too strong, the edges of 
the letter will be undercut and tht p^' le destroyed. The object 
of glass embossing in lettering i^'io^sho-; a richness in gilding 
by contrast. This is accomplished by gilding the etched letter 
and surrounding the edge so as to show an outline of bright 
gold. The gilding on the etched center of the letter is mottled, 
and shows the thickness of the etching, presenting a decidedly 
rich effect, esj)ecially Avhen designs are executed with the pencil 
brush within the outline of the letter. 

68. Testing tlie Acid. — The strength of the acid may 
be tested, in order to know when the sign is etched to a proper 
depth, by the use of the same sharp tool as before, which must 
be used with great care, however, as a slight scratch on the 
edge of the letter or surface of asphaltum would show the effect 
of the acid after the sign is finished. It is not necessary that 
etching on glass should be of greater depth than will show the 



30 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

edge of the letter and produce the mottled effect. This acid 
is removed in the same manner as the nitric acid, and the 
asphaltum dissolved with turpentine, after which the plate is 
well cleaned with whiting and water, and the eml)ossed glass sign 
is ready for the finishing process, or the gilding and coloring. 
It is always desirable that the best results may be obtained ; 
and, to insure this, the time should not be considered lost in 
testing the strength of the acid on various glass surfaces. Plate 
glass offers less resistance to the acid than sheet or crown glass. 
The acid is influenced, therefore, by the metallic oxide con- 
tained in the glass. 



IjEtter shading. 



COLORS USED. 

69. Combinations in Sliading. — There is a great 
variety of methods by which the shading may be added to a 
letter by the use of colors. A law exists in nature that is very 
forcibly shown in combining colors W'hen shading, and this 
must be regarded, or the work will not produce satisfactory 
results. A color apparently of a suitable shade when mixing, 
if placed on a black ground, will appear many shades lighter ; 
and the reverse is likewise true. If the same color be placed 
on a ivhite ground, it appears many shades darker. Letter 
shading may consist of several shades of one color, or several 
distinct colors may be used together, either blended or separated 
by outline. 

70. Transparent Shading. — This method is of service 
to the letterer, in that it both saves time and gives most satis- 
factory results. A transparent shading mixture is made by 
stirring a few drops of well-ground black in a medium-drying 
varnish, adding also a few drops of turpentine. This mixture 
forms a shade for all light colors and tints, and, if properly 
applied, produces what is known as the natural shade, or the 
same strength and shade as would be cast from a projected 
object on the same ground. 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



31 



71. Glaze Shading. — Transparent shade is used in the 
form of a glaze shade on such colors as vermilion, green, blue, 
yellow, etc. by adding a color corresponding with that with 
which it is combined. For example, the glaze shade applied 
on vermilion should be 
mixed with carmine (in 
tube). For green or blue, 
Prussian or some other 
strong blue is used, and 
sienna on yellow, etc. The 
glaze shade is always 
placed on another shade 
when the latter is thor- 
oughly dry, and covers one- 
half of this nearest the let- 
ter, as shown in Fig. 5 at c 
and e. 

72. Tlie Double 

Shade. — This is also illus- 
trated in Fig. 5, in which a 
shows the black line used to divide the shades ; h shows 
the block, usually some bright color, as vermilion, blue, etc. , on 
which the glaze shade c is placed ; d and e represent some 
neutral color, as gray, brown, etc., of which e is the transparent 

shade ; while / is the natural 
shade on the ground color, 
made with the same as e, but 
giving an entirely different 
shade. 

73. The Spectrum 

Shade. — This is produced by 

blending shades together, and 

its use is confined almost 

exclusively to the gilded and 

silvered letters on glass, although the same colors cannot be 

used on both. The natural color of the gold is warm, and 

therefore harmonizes with almost every color ; while the silver 




Fig. 5. 




32 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

is cold in tone, and suitable colors to combine with it must 
therefore be selected. Five colors are usually blended, when 
vermilion is used for the spectrum shade, as follows : (1) cream ; 
(2) lemon yellow ; (3) orange ; (4) vermilion ; (5) carmine. 
In all other cases, four shades of one color are used. In Fig. 6 
is shown the proper position the four shades should occupy. 
It will be observed that the darkest shade Jf. comes against 
1 the lightest which is usually a tint of the color, while 2 
and 3 are equally divided in strength between these extremes. 
The shades always occupy the same relative position shown, 
except on letters having a horizontal stroke, in which case but 
two colors, S and Jf^ are used underneath these strokes. 



THE PREPARATION^ OF COLORS. 



APPLICATION? TO A'ARIOIiS MATERIALS. 

74. Proper Use of Mixtures. — Much rapidity is gained 
in lettering b}' a knowledge of the color, or combination of 
colors, that can be used to the best advantage on a particular 
material. Suppose, for example, we have an elaborate silk 
banner on which a design is to be executed ; unless the proper 
mixture were used, the oil or other medium would be absorbed 
by the silk and so spread as to ruin the material at once. This 
condition may arise in the use of colors and their application 
to the many materials, where a successful design will depend 
on the kind of mixture used. 

75. Lettering on Cotton Sheeting;. — Cotton sheeting 
must be wet before being lettered, and while quite damp the 
lettering may be applied. Color for this purpose can be mixed 
with equal parts of boiled oil and japan, and thinned with 
turpentine. A 1-inch flat varnish brush will be found conve- 
nient in order to spread the color on the cloth with great 
rapidity, if the letters are large ; and for small letters the 
camel' s-hair swan quill is used. Shading colors thinned well 
with turpentine can, without danger of spreading, be applied 
when the cloth is almost dry. 



§2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 33 

76. Cardboard and Enamel Clotli. — Cardboard must 
always be lettered with water color or card black. Enamel 
cloth will also take this latter color, and it will be found to be 
the only color that can be used on this material with absolute 
certainty that it will not creep. 

77. Silk. — On silk, different preparations must be used 
under different circumstances ; for instance, if the design is in 
the form of a large panel on which a picture is to be painted, 
a paint must be used that will render the material pliable. An 
outline of hard-drying color may be used, and the center of the 
design filled in with any oil color to which has been added 
melted beeswax to the amount of one-fifth of the color. Ordi- 
nary orange shellac is used for a lettering preparation, and will 
be found a very reliable one. The shellec is used clear, but 
not too thin, though when too thick to flow easily from the 
brush it may be diluted with alcohol. Letters on silk must 
have two or three coats of this, according to the grain of the 
material, before it is ready to size for gilding, otherwise the size 
will not bear out, and the gold will appear mottled. Another 
preparation for the same purpose is the clear asphaltum, which 
should be thinned out with gold-size, japan, and a few drops of 
turpentine-; this will be found much better to use on close- 
grained silk than the shellac. All shading colors used on 
silk or satin should be mixed with naphtha to prevent them 
from spreading. 

78. Black-Snrface Cardboard. — On black-surface card- 
board, the white used for lettering should be water color, which 
can be mixed by filling a tumbler two-thirds full of zinc 
white, and adding enough water to dissolve it, and, when 
well mixed, about a tablespoonful of mucilage. This should 
be well stirred and allowed to stand a day or so before 
using, then thinned to flowing consistency and kept in an 
air-tight jar. Either Florentine white or Kremnitz white 
(unsized) will be found to be an excellent color also, but 
these must be mixed with a little mucilage to keep the color 
from rubbing when dry. 



34 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

79. (Uiiss. — For glass, the color used mostly is black, 
epecially iov outlining, shading, and lettering. To mix this 
color, use dry lampblack, best quality, grind thoroughly -with a 
palette knife, and add only best coach varnish. Thin with 
e(]ual parts of coach varnish and turpentine. Dry colors mixed 
■with water and glue are used for temporary lettering on •window 
glass. !Many beautiful effects are produced by their use, as 
they flow freely and dry quickly, 

80. liric'k or Stone Panels. — For lettering on brick or 
stone panels, the white lead should be mixed with nothing but 
boiled oil. The black used is lanq^blaok of an inferior grade, 
as it will answer for this purpose as well as the best quality. 
!Mix tlie lampblack, boiled oil, and a cupful of japan to a 
gallon of color. 

81 . l^lastered f?iirfaees. — For lettering on plastered sur- 
faces, a light flowing color, such as the card black, will cover 
the surface and will not spread or run. If colors are desired, 
mix them thick with coach varnish, and thin freely with tur- 
pentine. These colors will dry flat (or without a gloss). If 
oil colors were used on this surface, the oil would flow from 
the color into the white plaster and show a yellow line sur- 
rounding the letter. The nature of the mediums, regarding 
their drying qualities and the application of colors, is there- 
fore a constant study with the sign painter, and requires his 
careful consideration. 



IIELIEF I.ETTEKS. 



8l2. ^N'oodeu .Tjettei*s. — Relief letters are those that are 
raised above the sign surface, and are usually made of wood, 
unless the sign plate itself is of metal, in which case the letters 
are of brass cast from wooden patterns. The manufacture of 
wooden letters is such a simj^le matter that many sign painters 
undertake the whole i^rocess. The outline of the letter is 
drawn with coach black on thin Manila paper which is glued 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



35 



on the surface of the lumber and then sawed out, and only the 
best kiln-dried pine plank should be used. The edges may 
then be beveled or rounded as desired. If the latter, the only 
tools necessary are a chisel and a rasp to round the letters, after 
which they sliould l^e finished by using very coarse sandpaper, 
and a smooth surface is then produced with fine sandpaper. 

83. Tjarge "Wooclen Ijetters. — Large wooden letters used 
on the roof of Ijuildings or other elevated places are made and 
put up so as to stand out in relief against the sky, and conse- 
quently must be much larger than they actually appear from 
the ground. These letters, although reacljing in some cases a 
height of 8 or 10 feet, are simply constructed and easily put in 
place. They are usually 
made of 1^- or 1^-inch 
lumber, which must be 
well seasoned, and each 
stroke of the letter mor- 
tised and tenoned to 
give strength, as shown 
on edge of letter in 
Fig. 7. At least two 
angle irons should be 
used on the bottom of 
each letter, of sufficient 
length to raise the letter 
from the roof, and two round braces behind ; the size of the 
latter Avould vary according to the size of the letter. A ^-inch 
rod, extending over all the letters, is fastened on the tops 
by means of staples, and protects all single-stroke letters, such 
as the I, J, L, etc. , and gives the whole sign sufficient strength 
and stiffness to withstand a violent wind storm. These letters, 
in order to show to the best advantage, should always be painted 
black, and the irons lead color. 

84. Metal liCtters. — The metal letters, usually fastened 
on the brass or white-metal sign plates, are cast from wooden 
patterns, as before stated, and are afterwards filed, buffed, and 
plated wdth gold or nickel, to protect them from the weather. 




Fig. 7. 



86 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

They are fastened on the plates Avith screws, holes for "svhich are 
drilled in the center of the letter and through the sign plate. 
To locate the points for the holes, the letters are carefully 
placed on the plate where desired, and whiting is dusted around 
the edges, thus outlining each letter. Two holes are drilled 
through the plate in the center of the space covered hy the 
letter, after which the letter is again placed on the plate, to 
locate exactly the space where holes are to be drilled in the 
letter. The letters are then drilled, tajiped, and screwed on 
from the back of plate. 

85. Coini)o Sij^ns. — Compo signs, the letters of which are 
also in relief, are molded signs made by pressing a wooden- 
pattern design into "compost," or composition, wliich maybe 
either the material used for stucco work (a sized plaster) or the 
compo used in the manufacture of picture-frame moldings. 
These signs when colored are made very attractive, especially 
for advertising purposes. 

86. "AViro Signs. — "Wire signs may also be of an artistic 
design, the character of which will depend entirely on the shape 
of the framework. Ribbons and panels can be fastened back 
to back on wirework, and such a sign will not catch the wind, 
and may be made to read horn two opposite directions. 

ST. Cas-lMpo Frame Sii»:iis. — The gas-pipe frame signs, 
generally used in Ijondon, England, are easily constructed, and 
for advertising purposes are valuable, as they can be read 
several miles away. The size of this style of sign is limited 
only by the amount of the roof surface to which the braces or 
wire can be fastened. The frame may be the extreme width of 
the building, as the wires or braces are fastened in two opposite 
directions only. The letters are of wood, and are hung 
between the sections of the frame, as shown in Fig. 8. This 
sketch shows a sign 45 feet in width by 36 feet in height (the 
average length of the gas pipe is 15 feet), made to read from 
one direction only. A wire brace extends from every inter- 
section of gas pipe to a staple in the roof or wall. 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



37 



88. Advertising Signs on Brick Walls. — These some- 
times reach immense proportions. It is not unusual to see the 
sign painter begin his~ design at any part of the work, as 
the panel may be a hundred feet or more in length or height. 
The work is executed, therefore, from a miniature design or 
scale, which in this case could be either ^ or :|- inch to the foot ; 
and to insure against mistakes it is divided into blocks 10 feet 




^iaS^TWwr.'sia-. 



Fig. 8. 



square, and lined off on the sketch with red ink. Two or three 
plumb-lines dropped from the roof of the building from points 
10 feet apart, with tapes tied around them at every 10 feet of 
their length, will locate each square on the building, and Avork 
can be carried out with as much certainty, at any part of the 
design, as though the whole sign were but 10 feet square. 

89. Transparent Signs. — Electric lighting has done 
much to develop this branch of sign painting, and signs that 
would otherwise be unseen after dark can be so arranged as to 
serve the twofold purpose of advertising and illuminating. 
The materials usually employed for transparent signs are 
common sheeting, white Holland shade cloth, and frosted and 
stained glass. Many beautiful designs are made of the stained 
glass, framed in sheet metal surrounded with scrolled ironwork. 



38 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

90. Unlimited Glass Signs.— It is not an uncommon 
thing in Europe to see the name of some periodical, or of a 
business firm, stretched across a three- or four-story building, 
covering almost the entire front and reaching from the lower 
left corner above the store front to the roof. This style of sign 
is usually constructed of the heav3'-line script letter, and is 
made of any rough lumber, of uniform thickness, saAved to the 
design required. The whole design is firmly secured together, 
and opal glass is cut to cover the face, after first coating the 
wood with white lead. The opal glass is fitted *so as not to 
leave too wide an opening Avhere joined, nor to project beyond 
the edge. The sign is then covered along the edge with zinc, 
firmly tacked or nailed, and turned over on the face in the 
form of a half-round molding, which serves to hold the opal 
glass in position. 

91. Hanging- tlie Sign. — The value of a sigu depends on 
its finished appearance when placed in position, on the outside 
or inside of a building, and the sign painter should not allow 
his artistic taste or ability to cease with the production of a 
piece of work that may indicate his skilled eye and hand ; but 
he should study the relation of his sign to its surroundings, and 
arrange its final fastenings accordingly. These should, first of 
all, be the securest possible, and be .capable of resisting the 
severest windstorms, but they may also be attached without 
causing the legibility of the sign to be impaired or its neatness 
marred. Therefore, in hanging signs, do not allow the work or 
trappings used to show more than is absolutely necessary, unless 
they are of an ornamental nature. Architectural ironwork is 
used for swinging signs, either as an ornamental crane, or in 
scrollwork conforming to some characteristic design, such as a 
heraldic shield or panel. 



THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 



ALPHABETS. 



PliATE, TITLE: FULIj B3LOCK. 

1 . Take a sheet of drawing paper 15" wide and 20" long and 
fasten it on the board with thumbtacks, being careful to keep 
the edges of the paper parallel with those of the drawing board. 
Then, with a sharp-pointed lead pencil, draw a rectangle 15" 
long and 8^" wide, which allows a margin of 2^" on either 
side, and 3f" above and below the figure. These pencil lines 
will be erased when the work of drawing the plate is com- 
pleted. Beginning on the left vertical line, at the base of 
the rectangle, measure off the height of the letters, making 
four spaces IJ" high, allowing a space of f" between the four 
lines of letters. This brings the top of the first line of letters 
1" from the top pencil line. The height of the title is ^", and 
is J" above the first line of letters. 

Horizontal lines are then drawn with the T square from the 
points marked on the left vertical border line, and extended to 
the right border line. Each of the 1^" spaces is now divided 
into 5 smaller spaces of ^" each, and vertical lines are drawn 
through the space, dividing them into a number of ^" squares, 
as shown. 

2. On this plate the stroke of each letter and numeral occu- 
pies the width of 1 square (or ^"), and in giving the proportions 
of any part of a letter it is measured in strokes and fractions of 
a stroke. For instance, the letter tI is 5 strokes wide, and the 
spurs project beyond the width of the letter ^ a stroke (or ^" in 
this case) on each side. 

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 
§3 



THE FOIIMATION OV LETTERS. §8 



The lino8 forming the vertical sides of the square are assumed 
to be numbered separately for each letter, according to its 
width. Thus, the lines between which the letter A is drawn, 
exclusive of spurs, are numbered from 1 to 6; W occupies 
7 spaces, and is limited by lines 1 and S; M lies between lines 
J and 7; etc. All the letters being of the same height, they are 
included between the same horizontal lines; therefore, the spaces 
bctweiMi the lines a, b, c, etc. to / are each ^ the height of a 
letter. Now, in referring to any particular point in a letter, it 
is necessary simpl}^ to name the two lines that intersect at or 
near that point. For example, d would be the intersection 
of vertical line No. and horizontal line d, and would refer in 
the letter L to the extreme upper right-hand corner of the lower 
extremity of the letter; while in the letter IT it would refer to 
the intersection of the interior slanting outlines of the right 
portion of the letter. The student must bear these matters in 
mind as he studies the plates. 

3, The Full Block shown on this plate, and the Half Block, 
which is the title of the next plate, are the only styles of letters 
in this Course that can be classiticd as strictly mechanical. 
Nearly all letters are somewhat mechanical, as their straight 
lines are drawn with a ruling pen, though the curved portions 
may be drawn freehand with the point of the red sable brush. 
The style shown on this plate, however, is strictly mechanical, 
as no curves or irregular lines enter into its construction, and it 
can be drawn exclusively with a straightedge and pencil. The 
slightest curve or irregular line would require the free use of 
the hand, and call upon the judgment of the eyes to make the 
lines symmetrical and true. The plate before us is a simple 
one, but to remember the comparative width of all the letters 
and the exact position of every detail of each letter will require 
close attention and study. 

The Full- Block letter is made square, occupying, exclusive 
of the spurs, 5 spaces in Avidth and 5 in height. The middle 
bars of all the letters and numerals occupy the middle space 
between the lines, excepting those of the letter A and the 
numeral 4, which, in each case, is dropped ^ a space (or ^"). 



P THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 3 

The width of the letter is always rneasurefl between lines 
/ and 6', thus excluding tlie spur. Of all the slanting strokes 
in tlie various letters, those of the A^, V, and W are the ordy 
ones that extend to the bottom line, and are finished without 
a spur on the lower extremity. 

Full-Block letters do not possess any rounded comers, but 
Kuch letters as would possess rounded lines in other styles, as 
//, (J, D, etc., are t;eveled on the angles with a line drawn 
diagonally through the corner block (as shown in the letter <S') 
from point a ^ to a point ^ the width of the stroke (or yV") 
above b 1, and from f J^ to a point ^ of the stroke below eO. 
With few exceptions the width of the stroke should be the same 
in all parts of the letter. A slanting line is therefore drawn on 
the inside of the letter, parallel with the outside beveled corner, 
and never more than the width of the stroke from it, and occa- 
sionally less, as shown in the letter B aX c 5 and d 5, where 
the thickness of the slanting line is only ^", which makes it 
appear better than to give it the full width. 

4. There are many irregular features in letters of every 
style, and it is well that the student should become familiar 
with them, as they will assist him in learning the characteristic 
features of each letter. The extremities of the C are longer 
than those of the E or /'', on account of the inside bevel line of 
the C which would make the extremity of that letter appear too 
short, while the corresponding point on the G is the same 
length as the E and F, in order to allow as much space as pos- 
sible between this and the lower extremities of the letter. The 
lower extremities of the ./ and L are carried up to line d on 
account of the open space within these letters. 

5. To determine the proper slant of the strokes in such 
letters as N, V, X, and F when two given points are on opposite 
sides of the stroke, as well as on opposite ends, as in the letter 
N, for example, at 2 a and 5 f, carry an imaginary line, as 
nearly the proper slant as possible, in opposite directions from 
each of these points and ^" apart. Point off, to the left of 2 a 
at right angle with the imaginary line drawn from ^ a to a 
corresponding point at the right of 5/, the width of the stroke, 



THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 



and we have the true line from this point to 5f. After the first 
hne is established, measure the width of slanting stroke at the 
point opposite 5 f, and draw a line to 2 a which gives both 
lines for the slanting stroke. 

6. The four points of contact, which give the position of the 
slanting strokes of the letter /v, are as follows: From the point 
half way between c and d on ^ to ^ b, also from 6 e, to a point 
half way between 4 and 5 on c. The slanting strokes of the 
letter M are joined at the base line /, and are ^ a stroke in 
width at base, equally divided by vertical line 4^. The tail, or 
projection, of the Q is 2^ times the width of the stroke, and 
begins in its right outline at line 4 and passes through the 
intersection of lines 5 and /. 

The letter R is 5 strokes in width, but the tail is properly 
located J a stroke to the left of line 6, and is beveled less than 
other letters, or from a point f of a stroke below e. 

The letter V occupies a full-stroke space on the bottom 
line, while the lower extremities of W are but f of a stroke, 
^ on the left and ^ a stroke on the right of line 3, and J on the 
left and ^ stroke on the right of line 6. This letter occupies 
in width 7 strokes, while the M occupies but 6, with the 
effect of being the same or of even greater width. The other 
letters are of regular width, except the single stroke / and the 
numeral 1. 

The points that govern the construction of the character & 
are simply the position of the points on line d J stroke to the 
left of line 1 that gives the extension of the lower part of 
the character, also the points at ^ e and 6 c that give the posi- 
tion of the slanting stroke. 

7. The numeral^ is 1 stroke wider than the other numerals, 
the middle bar being \ a stroke longer on the right of the ver- 
tical stroke than the spur at the bottom. From the point where 
it touches line 1 in the middle of the side of the block, to the 
point where it touches line 2 in the middle of the side of 
the block below, gives the slant of the stroke, forming the 
numeral on the left end of the middle bar. 

The numeral 5 is not cut off or beveled inside of the stroke 



THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 



on the upper portion of the figure. The hne from 1 d to 2 d is 
dropped at 2 d about ^ of a stroke (or yV")- 

The figure 7 is the full width, although this may be some- 
times shortened ^ a stroke. The slanting stroke is from points 
4f to 6 b. 

After studying carefully the instructions and characteristic 
features of each letter, practice these letters on Manila paper, 
using only the horizontal lines a and /. This will familiarize 
the student with the relative width of the letters, before 
attempting the plate to be sent in for correction, and also show 
how much of the instruction he has retained. 

After drawing all the letters on the plate, outline the letters 
of the title Full Block and then proceed to ink in the work, 
using the T square and triangles to ink the horizontal and 
vertical lines, and the two triangles together for the parallel 
diagonal lines, as explained in Elements of Lettering. 

8. The small squares forming the guides for the lettering 
may be inked with clean fine lines, perfectly uniform in 
thickness throughout the entire plate. The outlines of the 
letters may be inked with a rather heavy line, as it will then 
be simpler to fill them in with a brush. The outline of the 
title Full Block will not be blacked in, and the pencil lines 
or squares that were drawn to aid in forming the letters will 
be erased. 

After all the outlines and other work has been inked in, and 
the pencil lines and other marks have been erased, take a No. 4 
red-sable brush and black the letters in solid. The utmost 
care is here required so as not to run the brush over the lines. 
Take plenty of time, and see that the ink in the brush is 
not too thick, and that there are no hairs or pieces of lint to 
catch and smear the plate. Fill in each letter carefully, and 
complete it before you start the next. By paying careful 
attention to these points, the student saves himself a great deal 
of future trouble. Do not hurry your work. 

9. First ink in all of the light lines and light dotted lines 
(which have the same thickness); then ink in the heavy 
required lines after the pen has been readjusted. The student's 



THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 



name, followed by the words "Class" and "No.," and after 
this his class letter and number should be printed in the 
lower right-hand corner f" below the border line, as shown. 
Thus, John Smith, Class No. 4529. The date on which the 
drawing was completed should be placed in the lower left-hand 
corner below the border line. All of this lettering is to be in 
capitals ^" high. Erase the division lines, and clean the draw- 
ing by rubbing very gently with the eraser. Care must be 
exercised when doing this, or the inked lines will also be 
erased. If any part of a line has been erased or weakened, it 
must be redrawn. Then write with a lead pencil your name 
and address in full on the back of your drawing, after which 
put your drawing in the tube in which the plate was sent 
you, and send it to the Schools. 



PLATE, TITLE: HALF BLOCK. 

1 . The Half-Block style of letter is, in many respects, similar 
to the Full Block, though the omission of the spurs necessarily 
changes the characteristic appearance of the letter. The Half 
Block is only 4 strokes in width, while its height is equal to 
the width of 5 strokes, as was the Full Block. Another detail 
of difference, particularly noticeable in the letters C, G, and S, 
and in the numerals S, 3, and 6, is the finish of the extreme 
corners of certain letters. The Full-Block letter G, for instance, 
is carried to the point 6 a, while in the Half Block it is cut off 
at an angle corresponding with the opposite side. 

On this plate are also given the small, or " low'er-case," 
letters of the alphabet, to draw which it will be necessary to 
divide the space occupied by the letters into ^" squares, instead 
of ^", as with the capital, or "upper-case," letters. Upper 
case and loiver case are technical terms used in the printing trade 
to designate the capital and small letters, respectively, of any 
style. The partitioned tray in which the individual pieces of 
type corresponding to each letter are kept is called a "case," 
and the one containing the small letters is set in front of the 
compositor, while the case containing the capitals is placed 
above and back of this. Hence the names upper case and lower 



M 
n. 



LF 



a 12 .! 4 -> 1 i .3 4 



mmmmm 



^ IB I ■* J ■ I - 



1 ■■■ \mm\ Mil r^^ I I I 



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JUNE 25. 1893. 



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.y^/^/V SM/TH, CLASS NS 4-529. 



\ry Engineer Company . 
served. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 7 

case. The old technical names were majuscules for the capital 
letters and minuscules for the lower-case letters, but in this 
course we will confine ourselves to the simpler terms. 

2. On a sheet of drawing paper 15" X 20" draw a rect- 
angle 15" long and 8^" liigh as required in the previous plate. 
These pencil lines serve as the lines from which all measure- 
ments, are to be taken. Begin at the lower left-hand corner 
of the border line and measure off on the left-hand line IJ" for 
the lower-case line, |" space, and 1^" for the 3 lines of upper- 
case letters with ^" space between them. The title Half Block 
will then be ^" above the top line of letters and J" high. 
Divide the space for upper-case letters into squares ^" each 
by means of the triangle and T square, and similarly divide 
the space for the lower-case letters into ^" squares. 

The corners of the letters are beveled at the same angle as in 
the Full-Block style; that is, in the letter B, for instance, the 
bevel line extends from 4 a to a point J stroke above -5 b, but 
the proportionate widths of some of the letters differ greatly 
from those in the previous plate. The letters A, M, W, and Y 
are each 1 full stroke wider, and the character cC' and the 
numeral 4 ^^Q each ^ stroke wider than the other letters of this 
alphabet, while the L is ^ stroke narrower. It is well to bear 
these facts well in mind, to compare the two plates closely, and 
to study the points wherein these letters differ. The left 
extremity of the / is the same as the Full Block, while the L is 
left plain. The middle strokes of the 1/on line/ are finished 
J the width of 1 stroke. 

3. The points, of contact in the tail of the Q are ^ stroke 
below and ^ stroke to the right oi 3 d and 4/- The length of tail 
below the line, from 4f, is f the width of 1 stroke. The tail of 
the E is ^ stroke to the left of line 5, and the bevel of the tail is 
■g- that of other letters. A bevel also occurs in the tail near 3 d 
to the vertical stroke. The vertical stroke of the Tis ^ on each 
side of line 3. The middle strokes of the W are f stroke wide 
on a, equally divided by line 3. On / these strokes are also 
f stroke wide, divided by line 3, ^ stroke to the right and ^ to 
the left, and on .^/this is correspondingly reversed, as likewise 



8 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

the outside strokes on a are 1 stroke wide, I stroke within the 
letter at lines 1 and 5, and | stroke outside these Hues. 

The horizontal bar in the numeral 4 is dropped ^ stroke 
below the center, while the horizontal bar of the yl is 1 whole 
stroke below. The two points that govern the left-hand 
outline of the numeral 4 ai"© 2 stroke to the left and | stroke 
below 1 d. The character d- is entirely different in outline 
from that of the previous plate, the points of contact being 
1 c to 4/ The upper cross-stroke is guided by points 1 d 
and 4- c. The other stroke, parallel with this, is made from 
points 4 d and 3 f. 

4. The lower-case letters are f" high X f" wide, and their 
stroke is h the stroke of the capitals, in this case ^". All letters 
that extend above line a are f" higher, except the letter t, which 
is only ^" above; all other letters extend below line/ f", except 
the g, which is h" below/. 

The beveled end, which occurs in the vertical stroke of the 
numeral 5, is also used on the lower-case letters b, d, m, n, p, q, 
r, and u. The same rule that applies to the capitals is also 
observed in the lower-case letters in regard to the beveled 
corners. The points of contact in the lower portion of the 
letter g are | stroke below If to 2f, and 1 full stroke below If 
to 2 strokes below 2f. The points of contact in the letter k are 
h stroke to the right of 3 a to 2 c, and from h stroke to the right 
of 4/ to 3 c. The m occupies 5 stroke spaces. The iv is iden- 
tical with the capital letter. The x is equally divided on lines 
1 and 3. The y occupies 4 stroke spaces; the points of contact 
in this letter are 5 a to 2 strokes below 5/, and from there to a 
point § stroke to the right and 3 strokes below If then from 1 a 
to of intersecting the other stroke. 

After the student has drawn the letters of this plate, he should 
then proceed as previously directed in his first plate to ink and 
fill them in, observing the same directions regarding his name, 
class letter and number, and date, after which the work should 
be carefully cleaned from all pencil marks. 



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■y6>//// SMITH, CLASS N9 4529. 



Engineer Company, 
•d. 



^3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 



PLATE, TITLE: ANTIQUE HALF BLOCK. 

1 . This style of letter differs from the simple Half Block in 
very few points, the principal one being the addition of a tri- 
angular spur to every corner on the side of each letter. The 
preparatory work of dividing the lettering spaces into ^" squares 
is identically the same as in the previous plates, with the excep- 
tion of the line for the title, which is ^-^" high. The corners 
of the letter are beveled, following the same rule as in the 
previous plate, but the line of the bevel is carried to 6 and e, 
from which points it is brought back to the body of the letter 
at as sharp an angle as possible, thus forming an acute spur on 
those sides of the letter that are beveled. 

2. The spurs on the strokes at lines a and / are carried 
^ stroke to the right and left of the stroke of the letter, and 
are brought back to the stroke of the letter ^ stroke above the 
line/ or below the line a. 

The character of the letters (7, (x, and ^S* and the numerals 
2 and 3 is slightly changed, which gives rise to an important 
change in the classification of this style of alphabet. This 
change, though slight, causes the Antique Half-Block style to 
be classed in the list with freehand alphabets. These letters 
and numerals have a spur extending above the line a, and a 
spur on the aS' extending also below the line/. These particular 
spurs are curved back to the lines a and/. 

The letter C is carried § of a stroke below the point 5 &, from 
which point a line is carried toward 3 d, which gives the proper 
angle to the end of the spur. On this line point off about 
^ stroke to the left of line 5, which will give the width of the 
spur, and with a radius of f of a stroke draw a quarter circle 
tangent to line b. The lower extremity of this letter is carried 
in the same manner to 5 d. 

3. The spur on the letter L is ^ stroke above line e, joining 
back to the stroke at an angle of 45°. The Mis finished without 
the spur, at points 2 a and 5 a, as is also the iV at ^ a, and 
the numerals i at ^ a, 4 at ^ a, 5 at i a, and 7 at ^/and 3 f. 

The character of the R is changed in this style, the change 



10 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

occurring in the tail of the letter, the }x>ints of contact being 
^ stroke to the right of 4 d J^n^^^ -'^.f- 

The lower extremity of tlie numerals S, o, and 9, and the 
upper cwtreniity of the figure 6, are finished the same as were 
the simple Half-Block letters, and show a full width of stroke 
at this point. 

4. The only difference in the lower-case letters from those 
of the plain Half-Block style is the spur, which is about ^ stroke 
long, and the finish of the vertical stroke letters, which are not 
beveled on the end as on the previous plate. These letters, as 
well as letters m, n, o, j), q, r, and v, are not carried above line a 
or below line J] but are beveled parallel with the spur. The 
extremities of the lower-case letters a, c, e, and s are finished in 
the same manner as are the capitals C, G, and S. 

5. The student, in drawing this plate, must bear all these 
points of comparison Avell in mind, and refer frequently to the 
previous plate, in order to note and compare the differences. 
Lay off the measurements from the lower left-hand corner of 
the border line, precisely the same as on the previous plate, and 
divide the lines for letters into squares, representing in each 
dimension the width of the stroke of the capital letters and 
the lower-case letters. Draw the letters in as usual, outline 
the letters of the title in the center of the plate according to the 
measurements given, and erase the border line or such parts of 
it as do not enter into the formation of the lower spaces. 

Insert the date, name, and class letter and number as in 
previous cases, and send plate in to the Schools for correction. 



PIjATE, TITLE: RAILROAD BLOCK. 

1. This style of letter, as its name implies, is designed to fill 
spaces such as the frieze and dado of railroad coaches, that are 
too long in proportion to their height to admit of the use of any 
other style. It is an elongated block letter, with only such 
changes in certain of its details as are necessary to make the 
elongated form practical. The height of the letters of this 
plate is I", while the breadth is 2^^", or 2^ times its height, 




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JOHN SM/r/i, CLASS N9 452^. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 11 

with the exception of the letters A, I, K, M, V, X, and Y; while 
the general characteristics of the letters are the same as those of 
the Full Block, assuming that the Full Block were designed in 
rectangles whose longitudinal dimensions were greater than 
their height in the same proportion as is the breadth to the 
height of these letters. Railroad- Block letters can be elongated 
to 3 and sometimes even 4 times their height without becoming 
distorted or badly proportioned. 

2. To design this plate, begin at the lower left-hand corner 
of the border line, as before, and point off on the vertical line of 
the margin 6 spaces of |" each for the lines of the letters, and 
5 spaces of j\" each between the lines of the letters. The title 
is ^" high and y^e" above the upper line of letters. The hori- 
zontal strokes of the letters in this style are 3^" wide; in loca- 
ting them, lay ofi /j" below line a and above line / and draw 
lines b and e; then locate line c ^" above line /, and draw line 
d "5^" below c. The vertical strokes are all ^" wide, and the 
slanting strokes are all ^" wide; but, on this plate, when refer- 
ence is made in connection with any part of a letter being 
proportional to its stroke, the f" stroke is always intended. 
Each letter is drawn within a rectangle, the height of which 
is equal to the height of the letter, and the length of which is 
equal to the length of the letter between two vertical lines passing 
through its extremities, exclusive of the spur. With the excep- 
tion of 9 letters, all of these rectangles are S^ strokes wide; of 
these, W is the widest, being 5| strokes, and iV is the narrowest, 
being 3f strokes. The others are as follows: K, 4 strokes; 
T, 4^ strokes; A and V, 4f strokes; M, 4 J strokes; and X and F 
are 4f strokes each. 

3. Now, commencing on the first line of letters, draw a ver- 
tical line J stroke to the right of the left-hand border line, and 4| 
strokes to the right of this draw another vertical line, thus com- 
pleting the rectangle within which the letter A is to be drawn. 
Draw the rectangle for each of the other letters on the top line 
in the same manner, leaving a space of 1 stroke between the 
B and C, and spaces of 1^ strokes between the A and B, and 1^ 
strokes between the C and D, the width of all the other letters 



12 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. § 3 

on top of the line being 3^ strokes. If these rectangles are 
proportioned properly, there should be a space of ^ stroke 
between the right-hand end of the rectangle containing the E 
and the right-hand border line. In a similar manner draw the 
rectangles containing the letters in the second line, making the 
first vertical line of the rectangle containing the F If strokes 
from the left-hand border line. In spacing the other letters, 
leave 1 stroke between F and G and between / and ./, If strokes 
between G and H, and If strokes between H and /. On the 
third line of letters, the rectangle containing the K is 2 strokes 
from the left-hand border line, while the space between it and 
the rectangle containing L is 1^ strokes. Between L and M, 
and between M and N, are spaces of 1 stroke and 2 strokes, 
respectively. The rectangle containing the and T on the next 
two lines below are each started ^ stroke to the right of the left- 
hand border line. The space between and P is If strokes; 
between P and Q a space of 1 stroke exists; the space between 
Q and R is H strokes; between R and S a space of IJ strokes; 
between 7' and C7 a space of 1^ strokes; l)etween U and Fa space 
of 1| strokes; and the space between Fand W If strokes. On 
the lowest line of letters a rectangle containing the X is started 
If strokes to the right of the left-hand border line, and between 
this and }'is a space of If strokes, while between I^and Z there 
is a space of but f stroke. The character & is 3J strokes wide 
in its upper part and 3f strokes wide in its lower part. The 
rectangle containing it is, therefore, of strokes long, and is 
located 2^ strokes to the right of the Z. 

4. Now proceed to draw the letter A, making the top of it 
on line a f of a stroke in width, and draw the outside slanting 
strokes to the lower right and left corners of the rectangle. The 
horizontal stroke of the A is equal in width to the other hori- 
zontal stroked of the letters, and its upper edge is on line d. 
The general length of spurs is § the width of the stroke; equal 
to the distance from line d to /. Spurs on slanting strokes 
should be twice the length on the inside to that of the outside, 
and they should always be made in proportion to the length of 
spurs or vertical strokes, measuring on line a or /. Exceptions 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 13 

to this rule occur in letters iT, W, etc. , which the student will 
overcome by proportion, in allowing proper space between spurs. 
In joining the strokes of B to the horizontal lines that form the 
spurs on the left-hand side, the compass may be used, and a 
quarter circle described, the radius of which is equal to half the 
distance between lines b and c, and the center of the quarter 
circle located below the top or above the bottom and to the left 
of the stroke of the letter a distance equal to the radius, as shown 
in the letter B. The bevel in this letter extends from a to 6 
and from e to /the full width of the stroke. In drawing C, £", 
G, S, T, and Z, a full width of one of the horizontal strokes 
(which in this case is ^") is left between the upper extremity 
of the letter and the line c. On the letters C, G, and S, a slight 
spur is extended above the line a, and on the S, below the line /. 
The letter F has its upper extremity resting on line c, and the 
lower extremities of the letters / and L extend to line d. The 
middle strokes of the letters E and i^are equal in length to J of 
the space inside these letters. The widths of A, M, N, V, and W, 
where their smaller extremity rests against the line a or /, vary 
considerably. In A, as we have seen, it is f of a stroke; in M 
but ^ a stroke; in N f, and PFit is f of a stroke; and in V, 4 of 
a stroke. In drawing K, the light slanting stroke joins the body 
stroke midway between d and e. The heavy slanting stroke 
joins the light slanting stroke on the left side at line d. 

5. The slanting strokes of M and JV start on the left from a 
point on the vertical stroke the width of the narrow stroke 
above line c. The light slanting stroke of ilf is joined to the top 
of the letter at the intersection of the heavy stroke on line a. 
Observe that the heavy slanting stroke in all letters, with the 
exception of the Z, inclines in the same direction, and that 
where two slanting strokes come together, one of which is heavy 
and the other is light, that the heavy stroke is on the left side 
in the U, V, W, and F, and on the right side in the A, K, 
and M. The tail of the R is nearly ^ stroke to the left of the 
line of the rectangle enclosing the letter. The spaces between 
the heavy strokes of the letter Teach equal the distance from 
line d to line /. The center of the letter V where it rests 



14 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

on line f is the middle of the base of the rectangle contain- 
ing the letter. 

G. To draw the W, extend the rectangle containing it the 
width of the narrow stroke to the right, or to 4 times the height 
of the letter, and divide this increased rectangle vertically into 
4 squares. A line drawn from points ^ stroke to the left of ^/ 
and 5 a will give the right outline of right narrow stroke, and 
from points S a to 3 f will give the left line of the left narrow 
stroke. The onl}^ points to be observed are those of the three 
spaces within the letter, or the points where the narrow and 
heav}' strokes intersect; the middle point is the width of the 
narrow stroke above c and the others are the same distance 
below (/. With a knowledge of the width of the slanting 
strokes, these points are all that are necessary to complete the 
letter. The letter X is drawn so that the upper line of the 
heavy stroke and the lower line of the light stroke extend into 
the corners of the rectangle on the right side of the letter; and 
the lower line of the heavy stroke and the upper line of the 
light stroke extend into the corners of the rectangle on the left 
side of the letter. 

7. The method of keeping the outlines of these strokes 
parallel is the same as in the case of the diagonal stroke of the 
letter N described in connection with the Full-Block alphabet. 
In drawing the Y, the upper point of contact between the 
diagonal heavy stroke and the vertical stroke is on line c, and 
the direction of the lower line of the heavy stroke carries it into 
the upper left-hand corner of the rectangle containing the letter. 
The vertical stroke is exactly in the center of the rectangle. The 
upper and lower width of the character cO have already been 
given, but, in order to secure the correct outline of the character, 
observe that the lower left-hand stroke is i the narrow stroke 
less in height on the end than the lines d e. The slanting stroke 
on the right-hand side of the letter begins on line / at a point 
equal to the width of the narrow stroke to the right of the inside 
of the letter, and the slant of this stroke is such as to render it 
parallel with the upper right-hand beveled portion of the letter 
and keep it distant the width of the narrow stroke from that 



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^O//// SM/TH, CLASS N° 4529 



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§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 15 

point. It is necessary to use much care in connecting the slant- 
ing stroke with the spur and to make the curves as small and sym- 
metrical as possible, so that their apparent length is equalized. 

8. Now, having drawn in all the letters in pencil, the 
title should be drawn to correspond with the letters of this 
alphabet, and should not exceed |-" in height. Ink in the whole 
plate carefully according to the rules laid down for drawing the 
body of the plate, leaving the inking of the title until the com- 
pletion of the plate otherwise; using the drafting pen, T square, 
and triangle when inking the horizontal and perpendicular lines, 
and using the triangle alone for the bevel lines at the corners of 
the letters, but turning all the curves from the strokes to the 
spurs on the insides of the letters with the brush, freehand. 
The letters should then be filled in with a brush, as with 
the previous plates, and all construction marks erased from the 
plate, except the 6 horizontal lines a, 6, c, d, e, and /, and the 
vertical lines closing the ends or each line of letters. In the left- 
hand corner the date, and in the right-hand corner the student's 
name and class letter and number, should then be carefully 
printed, as usual. 

PLATE, TITLE: ROUND FULL BLOCK. 

1 , The letters of this plate are precisely the same as those on 
the plate entitled Full Block, except that the corners are round, 
instead of beveled. The proportions of the letter are identical 
with those of the first plate in this Course. With the exception 
of the letters and Q, the curves should all be drawn freehand. 
To draw this plate, begin at the lower left-hand corner of the 
border line, and divide the space for the lettering lines and 
numerals in the same manner as for the plate entitled Full 
Block. The stroke of the letter will then be the same as in the 
first plate, and, though all letters are to be drawn, only such 
letters will be here described as possess in some of their parts 
curved outlines. Information for drawing straight letters, if 
required, can be obtained by reference to the Full- Block plate. 
The letter A on this plate is all straight lines, as in the Full- 
Block plate, but the letter B is rounded from the points ^ a to 



U> rilK FOmiATlON OF LETTERS. ^8 



6b, overlapping lino o* slightly, in order to give full widtli to 
the rounded stroke. The bottom of the letter is rounded in the 
same manner to 4 <". where the eurve stops. The inside of 
the letter is rounded from 4^ to 4i\ eonforiuing Avith the out- 
line nhovo doseribed, in order to give equal width to the entire 
stroke. The middle bar of this letter is exaetly in the eenter of 
its height, the lower rounded stroke thereby making a duplicate 
of the upper one. The letters C and C iwe not eireular, but 
slightly elliptical, the jHunts through which the curves of the C^ 
pass being 6 a, ^ stroke to the right of S a, ^ stroke below 1 c, 

I stroke io the right of Sf to } stroke below 6 d. The line from 
here to the fmish of the letter at 5 d should he somewhat curved. 
The hollow curve at tlie top of the letter from 6 a to the point 
4 a should be'but a slight depression, just sutlicient to show 
that there is a eurve there. At a point J stroke above o c begin 
the inside curve, keeping it perfectly parallel to the line of the 
outside. In the letter G the rounded stroke intersects the lower 
half of the vertical straight stroke at 6 c. This is done in 
order to leave sutlicient space on the inside between the end of 
the curve and the horizontal stroke. 

"2. The letters aiid Q are perfect circles, and their entire 
outline can be drawn Mith a compass. The letter B and the 
letter /'are precisely the same in their upper portion as the letter 

II The tail of the 7?, however, is 1 stroke to the left of the right 
side of the letter, .and extends to line 6 without curving away 
from the upper portion of the letter. The smaller eurve, where 
it leaves the letter and bends toward line 6, has a radius equal 
to ^ a stroke; the larger curve in the under side of the tail of the 
JR is an arc of a circle with a radius of U- strokes. The curves 
of the 8 are joined at a point \ stroke to the right of S c and S d; 
the upper and lower extremities of the letter are curved some- 
what after the manner of the upper extremities of C and (t, 
and the letter is carried slightly above the line, making it about 
yV sstroke higher than the other letters. This is done to preserve 
an appearance of evenness, as it would otherwise look short. 
The inside curve of the letter T extends from a point ^ stroke 
below .? d to a point A stroke below 3 d; the outside curve of 






JUNE 25. /693. 



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JOHA/ 5M/T/i. C^A55 //-= 4529. 



Ingineer Company, 
■d. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 17 

the letter extends from point 1 e to point 6 e, and is parallel to 
the inside curve, each curve being tangent to lines e and /, 
respectively. 

The character & is somewhat distorted, in order to correspond 
in width with the other letters. The middle stroke is but 
I stroke wide, and the outline of the upper half is parallel on its 
two sides, but tapers slightly as it approaches the middle stroke. 

3. In the numerals the only figures that remain the same as 
those of the Full-Block plate are 1 and ^. The lower left-hand 
side of the ^ is a quarter circle, and may be drawn with a com- 
pass, if desired, with the center at point 4f- The upper part, 
however, is not the arc of a circle, and must be drawn carefully 
freehand. In drawing the other curved figures, observe care- 
fully points where they intersect the squares in which they are 
drawn, and follow the lines of the plate accurately. 

Observe that the figure 3 terminates in the lower portion ^ 
stroke to the left of line 1. Figure 7, instead of possessing a 
straight stem, has a compound curve, which at the top and bot- 
tom is perpendicular to the horizontal guide lines of the letter. 
The student will draw these letters out carefully and ink them 
in, using the T square and the triangle for the horizontal and 
perpendicular lines, and the triangle alone for the slanting lines. 
The and Q should be inked with the compass, but the curves 
of the other lines must be carefully drawn freehand with pen, 
making each line form an even stroke without ragged edges or 
appearance of overlapping. Draw in the title as shown, black- 
ing in the letters with a brush, as heretofore described. 

Place the date in the lower left-hand corner, and the name, 
class letter and number in the right-hand corner. 



PliATE, TITLE: EGYPTIAN. 

1. This style of letter is very frequently referred to as 
Gothic — a name incorrectly given. The general formation of the 
letter is very similar to the Half Block, with the exception that 
all the Half-Block letters that are beveled on the angles are 
round in the Egyptian style.* These letters occupy 4 strokes in 
width, with the exception of A, M, W, and Y, and the numeral 4) 



18 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

each of which is 1 space wider, and the letters L and /, which 
are ^ stroke and 3 strokes narrower, respectively. The plate 
is lined in the same manner as the Half-Block plate; the 
title f " high is ^" above the top line of the letters. The round 
portion of all the letters partakes of the curve of an ellipse, and 
with the exception of a few special instances, the rules governing 
the letters and P can be applied to the drawing of all the letters 
on the plate. The extreme outline of the letter is a nearly 
perfect ellipse, the breadth of which is 4 strokes and the height 
5 strokes. The curved portion of the letters B, P, and R are also 
elliptical, the curve starting at the top of line 3 in each letter. 
The middle bar of the H is raised ^ stroke above the center. 
The left-hand portion of the entire curve of the / is a quarter 
circle, extending from point 2 d to 3 e. The right-hand portion of 
this curve is elliptical, joining the straight stroke about ^ stroke 
below point 4 d. The outside curve of the letter is parallel to 
the inside curve. The points of contact in the letter K are from 
5 a to h stroke below 2 d; the other slanting stroke is from 
point 5f to the line c. The letter M extends to line / with its 
slanting strokes, and is J stroke wide on the line /, while the 
lower part of the slanting stroke of the N is slightly less than a 
full stroke in width. The curve of the tail of the i? at 5 e is a 
quarter circle, the radius of which is ^ stroke, the outside line 
being made parallel to it. The inside curve of the U is a 
semicircle; the outside curve is elliptical, and joins the upright 
strokes at points 1 e and 5 e. The V and W are f stroke 
wide where they rest on line /. The central portion of the W 
is h stroke wide where it rests against line a. The angle of 
the left-hand portion of the numeral 4- is 45°, passing through 
the point 1 d, the upper slanting stroke of the figure crossing 
line 1, ^ stroke below the point 1 c. The horizontal stroke of 
the figure is ^ stroke each side of line d. In making the figure 8, 
the stroke between line c and d is reduced about ^ of its 
regular width in order to prevent the letter from looking top- 
heavy. The character & occupies 3 spaces in width above, 
and 5 spaces below its horizontal center line, and the middle 
stroke is reduced about | of the regular width. The lower- 
case letters are to be drawn as shown, following the same 



AKnrEQPH I 





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hiir>rir:j(ijii II I 




JUNE 25, 1893. 



Copyright, 1S90. by The I. 
All rig . 



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JOHN SMITH, CLASS /V9 4-529. 



Engineer Company, 
ved. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 19 

general directions as were given in connection with plate entitled 
Half Block. 

2. The lower-case letters are 3 spaces wide by 5 high; they are 
therefore more elliptical in form than the capitals, and are drawn 
from a point midway between 2 and 3 in all rounded letters, as 
the 0. An exception to this occurs in such letters as /;, m, and ?i, 
in which case the curve forming the top of the letter touches 
a at line S. The horizontal strokes of the / and t extend 
^ stroke on either side of the vertical. The vertical strokes of 
the letters m, n, p, q, r, are extended above the line a ^ 
stroke to the right, and are carried below the line in a corre- 
sponding manner on the letters b, d, and u. In the letters a, h, 
m, n, u, the curved outline of the letter joins the vertical stroke 
on lines b and e. 

The letter g extends 4 strokes below /; the* lower portion of 
the letter is ^ stroke below / at its center, while the upper 
extremity reaches a point 1 stroke above a. The curved end of 
the vertical strokes of the letters a, j, and t occupy but ^-stroke 
space, while that of the/ occupies a full-stroke space. 

Having finished drawing the letters in pencil, ink the plate 
carefully, drawing all horizontal lines with the T square and all 
vertical lines with the triangle, but turning all curves freehand, 
using a No 3 red-sable brush, as none of the letters will admit of 
the use of the compass to advantage. Draw in the title; black in 
letters on the body of the plate; put the date in the lower left-hand 
corner, and the name and class letter and number in the lower 
right-hand corner, as before. 



PliATE, TITLE : ANTIQUE EGYPTIAN. 

1, The form of this letter is almost identical with the plain 
Egyptian, the main distinction being observed in the addition 
of a spur at the angles of the letters, but no variation occurs in 
the proportion of the letter or its stroke. This style is very 
popular with sign painters and letterers, owing to the adapta- 
bility of the letter to a great variety of forms, to suit certain 
specific conditions. Some letterers make the spur much more 
exaggerated than shown on this plate, and others make it 



20 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

scarcely perceptible. The examples given herewith, however, 
may be taken as an average, wherein the spur projects about 
J stroke. All letters having a horizontal stroke, as the £', i, 
etc., have these strokes finished with a beveled end, on which 
the spur is added at the same angle. The ends of the strokes 
of the C and the upper stroke of the G and S^ and figures 
^, S, 5, 6^ and 9 are beveled at an angle opposite to that of the 
other letters referred to above. This bevel shown on the upper 
terminal of C is made by drawing a line from a point \ stroke 
to the right of 5 a to a point ^ stroke to the left of 5 c. The 
middle bar of the yl is 1 stroke below the center; the middle 
bar of the iZ is ^ stroke above the center; while the middle 
bars of the E and F are exactly in the center. The J is finished 
with a spur at 5 e, as well as just above 1 e. The points which 
determine the inclination of the strokes of the K are from 5 a to 
§ stroke below 2 d, and from .^ / to the intersection of the upper 
slanting stroke with line 3 J stroke above d. The 2 slanting 
strokes of the M meet in the center of the letter at a point on 
line/, and no spurs exist on the insides of the slanting strokes 
at the top. The end, though usually finished with a point at 
5f, as on this plate, is often finished the same as in the plain 
Egyptian, to which the spurs are added. The tail of the Q is 
cut on an angle of 45°, the shorter side being 1 stroke in length 
and the longer side being equal to the distance from 2 e io Sf. 
The tail of the i^ is a slanting stroke; the points of contact are 
4.dio 5 J. The strokes of the W come to a point on line a to 
correspond with the M. The corner of the Z is beveled of? at 
about the same angle as the interior of the 5 and top of char- 
acter &. The long slanting stroke of the character & is drawn 
from a point -| stroke to the left and below i a to a point ^ stroke 
to the right of J^f. The corresponding, or upper, slanting 
stroke, from its top to the beginning of the curve, is made from 
a point \ stroke to the right and below .^ a to a point 2 d. The 
other slanting stroke intersects the long stroke 1 stroke below this 
point, and is parallel with upper stroke, finishing on line c. The 
curve by which these strokes are united is f stroke to the left 
of line 1 at e. The middle bar of the numeral 3 is beveled at a 
slight angle, as shown. The character of the numeral 5 is 



Antique 



ABCDE' 
MNOPQI 

12345 X 



abcdef^hijkliT 



■ya/VE 25, /893. 

Copyright, 1899. by T) 
Allr 



!PnAN,Q:\^\ 



"GHIJKb 
tSTUVW 

z- 6759 

ibpqrstuvwxyz 

JONr^ 5M/TH, CLASS //? 4529. 

^Engineer Company. 
sted. 



THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 21 



changed at the point where the vertical stroke joins the curved 
bottom portion of the numeral 5. The point added below the 
line d is necessary to fill out the space to the line of the curve. 
The numerals 6, 8, and 9 are about ^ stroke wider than the 
other characters, but are similar in other respects to the same 
numerals in the plain Egyptian alphabet. 

2. The lower-case letters are in many respects the same as 
those in the plain Egyptian alphabet, although many exceptions 
occur. All strokes extending above the line a are cut at an 
angle of 60°, to which the spur is added at the same angle. 
This characteristic is also observable on letters of shorter height, 
such as the i, j, m, n, etc., but the ends of the strokes of all 
letters extending below the line are finished without this detail. 
Other information concerning the lower-case letters, as to their 
proportion, spacing, etc., will be found in the lettering plate, 
title: Egyptian. 

Having finished drawing the letters in pencil, they should be 
inked carefully, drawing all horizontal lines with the T square 
and all vertical lines with a triangle, but making all curves 
freehand, using the red-sable brush, as none of the letters will 
admit of the use of the compass to advantage. Draw in the 
title, as shown; black in the letters in the body of the plate 
carefully, lettering the date in the lower left-hand corner, and 
the name and class letter and number in the lower right-hand 
corner, as before. 

PLATE, TITLE: ANTIQUE EGYPTIAN (LIGHT). 

1. In drawing this plate, all guide lines will be omitted, 
except the lettering lines that limit the top and bottom of the 
letter. It will therefore be necessary for the student to count the 
number of letters in each line, and to divide his line propor- 
tionately, so that each letter will fill its proper space. The 
capital letters and figures in this plate are 1^" high, as in the 
previous plates, and the average width is 1", but the letters 
A, M, 0, Q, S, W, etc. are wider than the average, and the letters 
/, L, and iV are narrower, as will be pointed out hereafter. 

On the top line are 12 letters, the widest of which. A, is 1^"; 



22 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

the narrowest, the /, being but -^' or equal to the width of 
1 (Stroke. Commencing at the lower left-hand corner, divide the 
plate as follows for the first line of letters: XV' above the lower 
border line draw a line to limit the top of the lower-case letters; 
1|-" above the lower border line, draw a line to limit the top of 
the body of the lower-case letters; and y above the lower 
border line draw a line on which the bodies of the lower-case 
letters rest. The </, /, ^7, g, and y will then extend below this 
line on the lower border line, f" above the top line of the 
lower-case letters draw^ a horizontal line on which the numerals 
shall rest. The numerals, like the two lines of letters above, 
are IJ" high, with a space f" between them and the line above. 
The title is f" above the top line of lettering, and its letters 
are f" high. This style of lettering is an extreme form of the 
Egyptian letter, and in many respects is the most useful form it 
assumes. The lines are extreme and do not follow the conven- 
tional regularity of the lines of letters on the Full-Block or 
Half-Block plates, but are governed, nevertheless, by certain 
rules which the student must follow carefully to observe their 
proportions, particularly in this plate, as it is the first one to be 
drawn entirely freehand. 

2. Begin this plate by drawing the letter A^ which rests on 
the lower line, 5 strokes to the right of the left-hand border line. 
The width of the letter, exclusive of its spurs, is the same as its 
height, and the cross-bar is 2| strokes above the bottom line. 
In connection with this plate we meet with an entirely new 
detail in lettering, as seen at the top to the left of the letter A. 
This detail is called the cyma, from the Greek /ly/xa, Jzyma^ 
meaning "a wave." Its purpose, in most instances, is to fill 
the space between the slanting parts of the letter, or extremities, 
that are likely to cause wide openings when two letters are 
placed together. It is also used in some places to form the 
finishing stroke of a letter, as in the Q and Z. In subsequent 
plates its use in the construction of letters will be observed, as 
it forms a component part in many letters in the German Text, 
Old English, and Church Texts. The cyma on the letter A is 
8 strokes in length and 1 stroke to the left of the point of A. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 23 

The vertical stroke of the B is about 3 strokes to the right 
of A, but the student should proportion the length of the line 
so that the letters are evenly divided, and not lay off each letter 
by measurements taken from its neighbor. The middle bar of 
the i? is 8 strokes above the bottom line; the upper portion of 
the letter is 5 strokes from top line, and the lower part projects 
1 stroke beyond the upper part. The curves of the B are carried 
into the middle bar independently of each other, and start from 
the horizontal bars at about the center of the letter. 

3. The C is a perfect circle as far as it goes, and the spur 
on the inside is about 2 strokes below the top line; the lower 
extremity of the letter projects a full stroke beyond the top, 
and finishes in a point 3 strokes above the lower line. The 
curved portion of the letter D is semicircular, and becomes 
tangent to the horizontal top and bottom lines 3 strokes to 
the right of the vertical line. 

The middle bar of the £", F, G, and H are all on one line, 
4 strokes below the top of the letter. This bar in the E and F 
extends to within 2 strokes of the right extremity of the letter. 
The slanting stroke of the K begins 3 strokes above the lower 
line, and extends to the top Ime, where the end is beveled at an 
angle of about 60°. The L is 1 stroke narrower than the other 
letters, and thecyma is placed over it so that its lower extremity 
is even with the right-hand portion of the letter. 

The 31 is 2 strokes wider than the other letters and starts 
^ stroke to the right of the border line, to leave sufficient 
room for the spur. In some cases the M is made precisely 
like an inverted W, except that at the union of the 2 slanting 
strokes the letter is finished flat with a spur, instead of being 
pointed, as in the W. On this plate, the middle slanting 
strokes of the M are brought to a point J the width of the letter 
below the top line. The slanting stroke of the N commences 
on the vertical stroke, ^ the width of the letter above the 
bottom line. 

4. On this plate there is a difference between P and R which 
was not seen on previous plates. The loops are entirely different 
in style, the middle bar of the P being 4| strokes from bottom 



24 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

lino, wliilo the same stroke of the ]\ is ()| strokes above bottom 
line. The tail of 7i' intersects the middle bar at a point where 
curve becomes tangent. The letter »*> begins to curve each way 
frou) a jHUiit in the center of the U'tter on a liutMvith the middle 
bar oi 1\. The letter is narrower at the top than at the bottom, 
the proportions being about the same as in the numeral S, here- 
after described. 

The W is practically two F's joined at a point 2| strokes 
below top line. The cyma over the iris so placed as to till the 
sj>ace between its upper extremity in the same manner as 
the cyma is placed in the lower part of }f. This is not a 
component part of the letter, however, and in many cases 
may be omitted with advantage. 

The vertical stroke of the }' extends 6| strokes above the 
bottom line, the letter being 12 strokes wide on top. The A'' 
is 9 strokes wide t>n to{) and 4 strokes wider on the bottom. 
Z and the numeral 7 are of the average width on top, and the 
former may be finished in the same manner on the bottom, or 
with a cyma, as shown on the plate. 

The character cO is 10 strokes wide on the horizontal part of 
the letter, the longer slanting lines extending to the right 1 
stroke beyond the line of top of letter. This line divided into 
8 equal parts, will give about the location where the other two 
slanting strokes intersect the longer one. These 2 strokes are 
parallel and joined with a semicircle, as shown. 

5. The figures difYer somewhat from the letters on account 
of their elliptical form. The numeral 2 curves in each direction 
from a point 1 its height. The numeral S is much narrower at 
the top than at the bottom, and its sides can be enclosed in an 
isosceles triangle, whose height is about 3 times the height of 
the letter. The middle bar of the figure <? is 7 strokes from the 
bottom line, and is carried to the left and beveled off in line 
with the bevel of the top stroke. The middle bar of the 4 is 
7 strokes from the top line, and extends 9^ strokes to the left 
and 4 strokes to the right of the vertical line. The upper curve 
of 5 is 4| strokes from top line, and upper portion of the 
elliptical curve of ^ is li strokes below the top line, which 



§3 THE FORMATION OP LETTERS. 25 

distance is the same between the lower curve of .9 and the 
bottom line, and being BJniply reversed. 

The stern of the 7 extends below the line 4 strokes, and the 
figure is finished horizontally with a spur. The figure 8 is 
12 strokes long on the top hne, and the slanting strokes of the 
figure intersect 2| strokes below the top line and are joined on 
the loop, which is 12 strokes wide, and forms the lower portion 
of the figure. 

G. 'i'he lower-case letters are similar in general outline to 
those of the Half-Block plate, but in some respects are very 
different. It must be remembered that the lower-case letters 
should always be made so that the long strokes are the height 
of the (;apitals, and the others | this height, when they are used 
together. The letter a finishes on the bottom line V>y its 
vertical stroke coming to a point, as is also the case with 
the letters d and u. 

In proportioning the lower-case letters, they should bear the 
same relations with reference to their height as do the capitals, 
that is to say, their width should be ^ their height, as shown 
on this plate. In measuring the height of a letter, measure 
only the body, not counting the part that extends above the 
line, as in h and /c, or extends below the line, as with j and y. 
The strokes of the letters should also be in proportionate width 
to the stroke of the capitals, and those strokes which extend 
above and below the line should all extend to the same height, 
which was not the case with the Half Block. The cross-bars of 
the/ and t are longer in this than in the previous plate, and are 
on a line with the body of the letter. The top of the / is about 
I the regular width of the letter. The upper portion of the g is 
identical with the letter o. The letters c and e finish their 
lower extremities with a point, and the right-hand portion of 
the r extends | the width of the letter, and is the width of a 
stroke above the top line. The «, v, and w are precisely the 
same as the capitals, the only difference being the si/.e. The 
student will space these letters by the eye, drawing every outline 
lightly in pencil, in order to get them in their required positions 
on the plate. 



26 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

7. Having accomplished this, he shonhl start with tlie let- 
ter .1 and draw exclusively, in [)encil, each individual letter, 
making the lines freehand, and complete each letter hefore the 
following one is started, although in spacing the top line 
he may hnd it convenient to draw the L lirst, in order that 
the letters may be spaced evenly between them. 

When the letters are completed, drawn in pencil, the student 
should ink them in, using the T square and triangle for the 
vertical and horizontal lines, but turning all curves, except the 
capitals C, Z), (7, (), and Q, freehand. The letters may then 
he blacked in, solid, as shown; the title drawn on the top of 
the plate; the date on the lower left-hand corner; and the name 
and class letter and number on lower riirht-hand corner. 



PLATi:, TITLE: ANTIQUE EGYPTIAN (HEAVY)- 

1. It would at first appear scarcely possible that the 
lettering on this plate is but a modified form of the style drawn 
in the two previous plates. This is the heavy extreme of 
the Antique Egyptian style, as the former plate was the light 
extreme, and it is fitted to fill certain needs in letter design that 
no other style can accomplish quite so effectively. The heavy 
Antique Egyptian, however, is rarely used as a solid black 
letter, as shown on this plate, and it is here so printed in order 
to preserve uniformity in the lettering plates. In designs for 
lithographic work, show bills, book covers, etc., it is largely 
used in a simple outline; and though extremely bulky on 
account of the weight of the stroke, it is extremely graceful 
and symmetrical when properly handled. 

The three lines of letters and one line of figures in this plate 
are drawn between horizontal guide lines placed 1}" apart, as in 
the previous plates, with ;^'" between them. The title is f" high, 
and f" above the up})er line of letters. On this plate tiie width 
of the letter is 1|", and the stroke is about ^ of the width or yV'. 
As in previous plates, many of the letters exceed this width and 
others are narrower, as will be pointed out. 

2. The .4, B, C, E, G, and 7v are 10 per cent, wider, and 
the M about -0 \)ev cent, wider; the W is over 50 per cent. 



ANTIQUE, j 




aKUM 
STUW 

lZ34a 

JUA/E 25, 1893. 

Copyright. ISUd. by l| 
Alii 



iryiPTIAN,W^ 



tre-Hi 




tXYZ 





JO^N 5M/TH, CLASS N? 4529. 



'.ngineer Company. 
d. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 27 

wider, and the letter Z and the character &: are about 25 per 
cent, wider. Tlie numerals ^, 5, 6', 8^ and .9 are each aVjout 
10 per cent, wider than the average width of the letters. It is 
not intended that the student shall carry all these dimensions 
and irrr-j^ularities in his mind, but by paying attention to tPiese 
proportions, as he draws the letter, and thereby accustoming 
his mind to nothing but letters of perfect proportions, he will 
soon be able to draw a letter which bears its proper relation of 
width to height and weight in stroke, without making any 
mechanical measurements to determine the stroke, and thus 
learn why each letter is given certain characteristic forms. The 
rapidity and ease with which he accomplishes this result will 
depend entirely on the amount of practice given to the work, 
with strict attention to the rules set forth. 

rj. The spurs of these letters are about ^" long, although in 
exceptional cases, such as the E or X, the spur is made much 
longer in order to balance the stroke. All vertical strokes 
are finished on their upper and lower extremities by a concave 
line. This -line is the arc of a circle, the radius of which is IJ" 
above and below each vertical stroke. Letters having 3 parallel 
horizontal strokes must have these strokes somewhat reduced in 
width, in order to leave a space within the letter, as in the 
li and E. In the letter H and the character (fc, this is accom- 
plished by carrying the stroke above the line and thereby 
drawing the letter open. In the letter C, the lower portion of 
the stroke extends \ of a stroke beyond the upper portion of 
the inside point, and on the E^ F, .7, and Z, a slight spur is 
added to the outer extremity, which carries the letter above the 
line. The lower portion of the horizontal stroke of the E is not 
a straight line but a compound curve, the center of which, on 
the upper side, is on a line with the middle bar of the letter; 
the length of this middle bar is equal to the width of the stroke, 
or ^ the width of the letter. The middle stroke of the II is 
\\ strokes above the bottom line. The ./ is brought to a point 
at the left of its lower curve; the top of the curve rises to within 
1 stroke of the top line of the letter. The upper slanting stroke 
of the K, and also the right strokes of V and W^ are rested about 



28 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

^ stroke above top line of letter. The right spur of this project- 
ing stroke rests either on the top line, as in K, or ^ of a stroke 
above it, as in the V and W. The points from which the slant- 
ing strokes of the K are drawn are f stroke from the bottom line 
on the right side of the vertical stroke and the same distance from 
this point on the right side of the upper slanting stroke. The 
horizontal stroke of the Z is a compound curve similar to that of 
the E, except that it is about ^ stroke shorter. The cyma added 
to this letter is about f the width of a stroke. 

4. The letter M is brought to a point on the lower line. 
The letters and Q are not perfect circles, as in the Light 
Egyptian plate, but are f stroke wider than their height. The 
horizontal stroke of G, the tail of the Q, and character d: are 
curved somewhat in the shape of a horn. The point in each 
case rests within the letter. The outside end is terminated with 
a concave form, similar to the vertical strokes in the letters. 
The tail of the R is carried below the line in the same manner 
as the top of the K is carried above the line. The slant of the 
stroke of the R starts at a point f stroke from the vertical line, 
and is carried so that the outside of the stroke is directly below 
the curve of the letter. 

The letter S is drawn by means of 4 vertical lines 1 stroke 
apart. The third line will mark width of letter to upper spur, 
and fourth line will mark width of letter at extreme right-hand 
curve. The first line will mark curve of letter on left-hand 
side. The letter X is equal in width to the letter F, and the 
point of intersection of its slanting strokes is 4 stroke above 
the bottom line, and that of the Y the same distance from the 
top line. The lower stroke of the Z is similar to the letter E, 
except that it is cut off on the lower left side of the letter to 
form a beveled end. The character cC- is drawn with 4 vertical 
lines similar to those of letter S; the first line in this case 
determining the curved portion of the left-hand side of the 
letter; the fourth line determining intersection of under side of 
lower curve of the character and horizontal horn stroke; the 
second stroke will determine the point where top of character 
begins to extend above top line. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 29 

5. In drawing the numerals, little need be said in explana- 
tion. Attention is called only to a few points, such as that the 
2 is straight on the bottom line and curved on the upper 
portion, similar to the reverse of the upper terminal of the C\ 
the horizontal stroke is a compound curve on top. The S 
extends \ stroke above line, the point of the strokes being in 
center of inside space of letter. 

The middle bar of 4 is f stroke from the bottom line, and 
extends the width of the stroke of the letter to the right, and is 
carried to the left only far enough to give a small opening 
inside the figure. The figure 5 is carried \ stroke below the 
line. The point of the vertical stroke is f stroke above the 
bottom line. The 6 extends \ stroke above the line and is 
f stroke from top line to upper side of curve. 

The 7 extends \ stroke below line, and the right point is 
vertical below center of horizontal stroke. The figure 8 is 
composed of 2 ellipses, the lower one being \ stroke wider than 
the upper one. The 9 is just the reverse of 6. 

6. In drawing the figures, it will be necessary in some 
places to diminish the width of a stroke in order to leave 
sufficient space within. The student will draw all these letters 
with pencil, freehand, in precisely the same manner as he did 
on previous plates; then ink them in, freehand, without the use 
of T square and triangle, other than to draw the pencil guide 
lines. The letters must then be filled in as in copy, the title 
drawn and blacked in, as shown, and the date, name, and class 
letter and number put in their proper places, as heretofore. 
The student is not expected to produce absolute duplication of 
the letters on these sheets. By this time he should have 
become familiar enough with the forms and proportions of the 
strokes, widths, and heights of all letters to vary them slightly 
from the dimensions giveri on this plate, without seriously 
impairing their proportions; therefore, in drawing this exercise, 
the proportions of the strokes may be varied slightly in some 
places, if in the student's judgment this will improve the 
appearance of the letter. 



30 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 



PliATE, TITI.E: FREKCH R0MA:N^. 

1. The letters on this plate possess the same general propor- 
tion as the Full Block, that is, they have a width equal to their 
height. This width varies in some letters, however, precisely as 
it did in the Full Block style, and the student will be instructed 
as to the details of such variation as the letter in question is 
discussed. The characteristic difference between the Roman, 
Egyptian, and Half Block styles of letters lies in the use of two 
separate but uniform widths of lines to form the letter. These 
are distinguished under the names of stroke, for the heavy por- 
tion, a.ndjine line for the slender portions of the letter. 

On this plate the 4 lines of letters and numerals are each 1;^" 
high, and f " apart, and the stroke is jq", or ^ the height, and 
the fine line is i the stroke. The title is y^g" high and -^" above 
the line of letters. To draw this plate, divide the drawing 
paper above the lower border line, as in the previous example, 
and then lay out the letters lightly, in pencil (freehand), so as 
to space them equally along the lines. 

2. The letter A is commenced 2^ strokes from the border 
line, and is 4| strokes wide at the base. The apex of the A is 
the center of the letter (as is alwa3"S the case in upright letters), 
and the top horizontal bar is | stroke above bottom line. The 
spurs on the bottom make the foot of stroke 2 strokes wide, 
and the foot of the fine line 1 stroke wide. 

The vertical stroke of B is about 1:^ strokes to the right of the 
A, and the intermediate bar is 2J strokes from bottom, as are 
also the intermediate bars of E, F, and H. The width of the 
top of B is exactly 4 strokes, but the lower curved portion pro- 
jects f stroke more on the right side, and the spurs, top and 
bottom, extend an equal amount to the left. A vertical line 
drawn li strokes to the right of the upper curve of the B will be 
tangent to the left curve of C, and 4J strokes to the right of this 
line another vertical line will limit the fine lines of C. The 
lengths of each of the spurs, on the ends of the fine line of the 
C, is 1 stroke, the top one of which touches the top lettering 
line, while the bottom spur is ^ stroke above the lower lettering 



FRENC 



ABCD 
JKLM 
STUV^ 




JUNE 25, /dS3. 

Copyright, 1899, 



ROMAN 



FGHI 

40PQR 

f^XYZX: 



16789 

JO///V 5M/TH, CLASS N9 4-529. 

y Engineer Company, 
'rved. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 31 

line. One and one-half strokes to the right of Cis the vertical 
stroke of letter Z), which is 4 strokes wide. The curve of D 
commences ^ stroke to the right of the vertical stroke and 
the fine line gradually expands in an elliptical curve until it is a 
full stroke wide at the center. The spurs on D are the same as 
those on B. The letters E and F are each 4 strokes wide, the 
vertical stroke of the E being 1 stroke to the right of D, and 
the vertical stroke of the F 1\ strokes to right of E. The spurs 
on these letters are each 1 stroke long, and incline away from 
the letter at such an angle as would make either of them inter- 
sect the opposite lettering line about 1 stroke away from the 
letter; that is, if the line of the lower spur of E were carried to 
the top of the letter, it would intersect the top lettering line 

1 stroke to the right of the letter. The intermediate bars of 
E and F are 1|- strokes long. With the exception of the 
vertical stroke, G is precisely like C; this extends \ stroke to 
the right of the fine line. The lower fine line joins the vertical 
stroke, on the outside, | stroke above the bottom, and the top 
of the vertical stroke is 2| strokes above the bottom line. There 
is a space of 1|- strokes between G and H, and a space of 

2 strokes between H and /. i? is 4 strokes wide. 

The letter J is 4 strokes wide, and its left extremity touches 
the left border line; the intersection of the curve and vertical 
stroke on the right is 1 stroke above the bottom line. The 
letter K is 4;^ strokes wide, and the fine line intersects the 
vertical stroke l\ strokes above the bottom. The slanting 
stroke intersects the fine line l^- strokes from the vertical stroke 
on the fine line. Excepting that the spur is 1^ strokes in 
length, L is similar to E. 

3. The letter M is 5 strokes wide. The intersection of the 
slanting stroke and fine line is on the bottom lettering line, 
exactly midway between the vertical stroke and vertical fine line. 
The lower side of the slanting stroke, where it intersects the 
vertical fine line, and the lower side of the slanting fine line, 
where it intersects the vertical stroke, is f stroke below the top 
lettering line. The letter N is \ stroke narrower than the 
average 4-stroke letter, and the under side of the slanting stroke 



32 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

intersects the left vertical fine line | stroke below the top line, 
and the right vertical stroke at its intersection with bottom 
lettering line. In outline, the and Q are complete circles. 
The middle line of the P is H strokes above the lower lettering 
line, while the middle line of P is 2 strokes above, and the 
slanting stroke intersects the fine line 1 stroke to the right 
of the vertical stroke of the letter. The S is 3f strokes wide at 
the top and 4 strokes wide at the bottom; on the vertical center 
line of the letter the double-curved stroke is 1|- strokes below 
the top line, and the spur on the end of the lower fine line 
is 1^ strokes in its vertical length. The U is 4 strokes wide, as 
is also the Z, and the Fis similar to an inverted A. The W is 
6^ strokes in width at the top, and its two lower points inter- 
sect the lower lettering line, 3 strokes apart. The point .where 
the middle stroke and fine line meet on the top line is an equal 
distance from the inside of the left stroke and the inside of the 
right fine line; a vertical from this point drawn to the bottom 
letter line will give the position of the points reached by the 
strokes and fine lines on the bottom line. The right point is 
1 stroke from the vertical line and the left point is 2 strokes. 
The X is 3| strokes on top and 4| strokes wide at the bottom. 
The Y is 4^ strokes wide on top, and the vertical stroke is 
exactly in the center of the letter and 1\ strokes high on the left 
side. The character & is 3;^ strokes wide on top. The curved 
portion of the character extends \ stroke to the left of the top 
fine line, while the center of the slanting stroke, where it rests 
on the bottom line, is directly beneath the right end of the top 
fine line. One slanting fine line intersects the slanting stroke 
1 stroke below the top, and the other intersects the slanting 
stroke i stroke from the bottom line, and then terminates in a 
horizontal spur 1^ strokes from the top line. 

4. In outlining the numeral ^, the space within the top of 
the figure must be as large and full as possible, without curtail- 
ing the space below. The horizontal stroke is i\ strokes long 
and is finished with a concave end and spur, as are also the 
5 and 7. In each of these numerals the point of spur is \ stroke 
from the end of the horizontal stroke to which it is attached. 



Ff^ENeni 



ABCD 

STUV\ 
12345 

JL/NE 25. /893. 

Copyright. lS!»i>. by 
A! 



QA\Ari,(M 




FGHI 
^OPQR 



«^^ 






JO/iA/ 5M/TH, CLASS N^ 4-529. 

I uicinrrr Company. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 33 

The numeral S is 3f strokes wide on top and 4i strokes wide on 
the bottom; the intermediate fine line is 2i strokes from bottom, 
and extends into the figure about f of the inside space. The 
horizontal fine line of numeral 4 is If strokes above the bottom 
of the figure, and extends 2| strokes to the left of the stroke 
and I strokes to the right. The horizontal stroke of 5 is 
3| strokes long, and the top of the intermediate fine line is 
If strokes from the upper lettering line. The figure is 4 strokes 
wide on the bottom, and finishes \ stroke to the left of the 
vertical fine line. 

The 6 is 4f strokes wide, and the intermediate fine line is 
li- strokes from the top. The upper fine line, with the spur, 
finishes \ stroke short of the full width of the figure. The 7 is 
4 strokes wide on top and If strokes on the bottom, and its 
foot rests \\ strokes to the left of the end of the horizontal 
stroke. The 8 is ^\ strokes wide on the bottom, and is identical 
with the right half of the duplicate on two sides of a center line. 
The 9 is an inverted 6. 

The student will draw these letters in pencil, carefully pro- 
portioning each letter of both the plate and the title, measuring 
each stroke. The inking in must be done freehand with a red- 
sable brush, and the letters carefully blacked, as before. Insert 
the date in the lower left-hand corner of the plate, and in the 
lower right-hand corner put the name and class letter and 
number. 

PLATE, TITIiE: FRENCH ROIMAN (lilGHT). 

1. This style of letter fills the same position in point of 
variation to the normal alphabet as does the light Antique 
Egyptian to the normal alphabet of that letter. It is also an 
extremely modified form of the normal letter, applicable to 
certain specific purposes, where the mother style would be less 
desirable. The stroke of this style of letter can be made even 
lighter than on this plate, although, with such lightening, the 
fine line should remain about the same, unless the reduction in 
the stroke is such that it makes them too nearly the same size. 
The curved strokes of the letters appear more slender than the 
straight strokes if made the same width as the vertical, on 



34 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

which account some of the numerals, as well as the letters, are 
made heavier in stroke, and will be pointed out when the 
numerals are discussed. In making use of this style of alj^ha- 
bet the strolvc should never be made heavier, in proportion, 
than on this plate, as an increase would tend to bring it back to 
the original style of plain French Roman, wherein the stroke is 
^ the height of the letter. 

2. The cyma enters into the construction of some of the 
letters of this plate as it does in the light Antique Egyptian, and 
is also used in some instances to fill up the broad open spaces. 
It does not form a component part of any of the letters, except 
the A and Q, and under certain circumstances may be omitted 
entirely. Letters on this plate are the same dimensions in 
height and spacing as on the previous plate. The title is f" 
high, and ^" above the top line of letters. The stroke is 
y\"; the fine line is ^ the stroke. The thickest part of the 
curved strokes is equal to the width of a stroke plus the width 
of the fine line; the spur projects ^ the stroke. 

3. The letter A is 7§ strokes wide and is started 3f strokes 
from the border line; the cyma, forming a cross-bar of the A, 
equally divides, and is itself equally divided by, the fine line. 

The ^ is 2 strokes to the right of the A, and 6J strokes wide 
at the top and 7 strokes wide at the bottom. The intermediate 
fine line is 4 strokes above the bottom line, and the lower space 
within the letter is ^ stroke Avider than the upper space. 

The (7 is Ih strokes to the right of the JS and is 7 strokes wide 
to the spur on the top line, but the lower fine line extends the 
width of 1 stroke, and finishes 2 strokes above the bottom line. 
The vertical stroke of the D is If strokes to the right of the C, 
the letter being 7 strokes wide, and the fine line commences to 
curve at a point twice the width of the stroke to the right of the 
vertical stroke. The middle horizontal fine lines of the E, F, G, 
and H are 2 strokes below the top line, and in E and F, 4 
strokes long. The spurs on C, G, and *S' are rounded from the 
fine line, giving it an extra thickness at this point. The hori- 
zontal middle bar of the 6r is 4 strokes in length. The space 
between the D and the E and the E and the i^ is 2 strokes; 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 35 

between the F and the G, only | stroke; and between the 
G and the H and the H and the 1 is 2f strokes. The letters E 
and F are 6 strokes and the D, G, and H are 7 strokes in width. 
The curve of the J intersects the vertical stroke 1 stroke above 
the bottom line. The fine line of the letter K intersects the 
vertical stroke 2 strokes above the bottom line, and extends 
1 stroke above the top line; the slanting stroke intersects the fine 
line 3f strokes from its lower end. The middle slanting strokes 
of the M are brought to a point 3 strokes above the bottom line; 
the top of the letter is 3 strokes narrower than the bottom, the 
full width on the bottom being 8 strokes. The slanting stroke 
of the N joins the vertical fine line on the right 1 J strokes above 
the bottom. The and Q are 8 strokes wide; the P and R 
are 7 strokes wide; and their middle fine lines are 2§ strokes 
from the top line. The cyma of the Q rests on the bottom line 
on the right side of the letter, and on the left is 2 strokes above 
within the letter. 

4. The intersection of the slanting stroke of the R with the 
middle fine line is 2 strokes to the right of the vertical stroke, 
and its lower end is cut off at an angle of 45°, the right spur 
resting on the bottom line. On a vertical center line drawn 
through the S, the middle stroke is 3f strokes from the bottom 
line; the fine line on top is cut off 1 stroke shorter than the 
projection of the curve beneath it, while the fine line at the 
bottom projects 1 stroke beyond the curve above it. The full 
width of the S at the bottom is 7|- strokes. The T is 7 strokes 
at the top, and the U is 6^. The fine line of the letter V 
extends above the lettering line in the same manner as the fine 
line of the K. The intersection of the interior lines of the IF 
is equally divided between the stroke and fine line, and is 
1^ strokes below the top line. The space between the points 
of the letter on the bottom is 5 strokes, and the cyma is drawn 
about I of the space within the letter. In the letter X the fine 
line intersects the stroke 2J strokes below the top line, and the 
letter is 8 strokes wide at the bottom. The fine line of the Y 
intersects the vertical stroke 3f strokes above the bottom, 
and the letter is 7f strokes wide on top. The character & is 



36 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

7 strokes wide at the bottom, and the lower end extends 1 stroke 
to the right of the upper portion. The middle bar is 4 strokes 
from the bottom line. The cyma is so placed as to extend 
IJ strokes outside, and 2| strokes inside, the letter, and its 
lower end is 1^ strokes above the line. 

5. The numeral 1 is beveled on its upper end at an angle of 
60°; the line of the bevel being equally divided by the top line of 
the letters. The upper parts of the numerals 2 and S are sickle- 
shaped, and the horizontal stroke of the 2 is straight on the 
bottom and curved on the top. The lower fine line of the 3 is 
finished similar to the upper fine line of G. The middle bar 
of the figure 4 is 2§ strokes above the lower line, and extends 
5f strokes to the left and 2 strokes to the right of the vertical 
stroke. The middle bar of 5 is 4 strokes above the bottom line; 
the upper horizontal stroke is 6 strokes long, and finished 
in the same manner as the bottom stroke of the 2. The middle 
bar of the tf is 5 strokes above the bottom line, and the upper 
part of the figure diminishes to a point 1 stroke above the top 
line, the point being on a vertical line from the inside of the 
right-curved stroke. The slanting stroke of the 7 extends 
1 stroke below the line, and is cut of? parallel with the lettering 
lines; the horizontal stroke of the 7 is similar to the top stroke 
of the 5. The figure 5 is 6 strokes wide on top and 7J strokes 
below. The horizontal middle stroke is 2^ strokes below 
the top line. The numeral 9 is similar to the 6, reversed, the 
middle line being 2 strokes above the bottom line, and the 
point of the letter below the bottom line being vertically 
beneath the outside of the left-hand curved portion. 

These letters and numerals should be drawn in freehand, 
according to the directions herewith given, and tlie letters 
blacked in ink. Then put the date in the lower left-hand 
corner, and in the lower right-hand corner the name and class 
letter and number, as before. 



FKENei 




OPQI 

JUNE 25, /893. 

Copyright. 189. 



:3/H/\N ■■ (nt^>Jx 




|L»/V\IN 






^O///^ SM/TH, CLASS N° 4529. 

> F.nginrer Company . 
'ved. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 37 



PLATE, TITI.E: FRENCH R0MA:N^ (HEAVY). 

1. In this plate we have the other extreme of the letter, as 
contrasted with the light style of the French Roman alphabet. 
The stroke in this style is increased to about twice what it was 
in the normal French Roman style, thus making the strongest 
contrast possible in the details of the letters. In general use, 
however, this heavy style of letter (as explained in connection 
with the heavy Antique Egyptian alphabet) is not usually 
blacked in solid as here shown, but is drawn in outline only, 
the outline being about the same weight as the fine line. In 
designing any particular variation of a form or style of letter, 
such as heavy French Roman, it is important to observe that 
in each variation the characteristics of the letters should be 
maintained uniformly throughout the alphabet. For instance, 
the lower fine line of the E is in this case not terminated with 
the regular spur, as before, and to be consistent, the lower fine 
lines of the L and Z are similarly terminated, as these letters in 
any plain alphabet are alike in the lower fine line and finish. 
The same idea may be observed in the carrying of the fine line 
of the K, V, W, and Y above the line. 

2. The height of the letters in this plate, their size and posi- 
tion, the space between the lines, and also the title, are precisely 
the same as on the previous plate. The width of the stroke 
is J". The average width of a letter is 3 strokes, but the 
alphabet abounds in exceptions, so that it is not surprising 
to find that the number of letters of standard width are in the 
minority. The spur is about ^ of the stroke, and is joined to 
the fine line with a curve, except as pointed out in connection 
with the E, L, and Z, and also in the other fine lines of the 
letters E, F, T, and Z. The letter A is 3^ strokes in width. The 
middle bar is f" from the bottom line, but the spurs at the 
top of the side end stroke are precisely the same as those at 
the bottom. The ends of the strokes are rendered concave by 
the arc of a circle whose radius is 4 strokes. The middle line 
of the B is 1^ strokes above the bottom. The lower portion of 
the letter is 3J strokes wide and extends J stroke to the right of 



38 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §o 



the upper portion. The bottom fine hne of tht H.ec C extends 
1 stroke beyond the spur at the end of the top ae, and the 
cynui is inserted, as shown, to fill the space within the letter. 
Observe that the curve of the cyma becomes tangent, as though 
it were a continuation of the inner curve of the letter. The 
outlines of the B, D, E, L, P, R, and Z are formed, not of a 
straight line on top and bottom, as in previous styles, but in 
the form of a compound curve, making, thereby, a wavy fine 
line, terminating in the E, L, and Z with a heavy curl. The 
horizontal fine line in the middle of the E, F, and H, and the 
top of the vertical stroke of the G, are f stroke from the top 
line. The intermediate fine line of the E and i*' is 2 strokes in 
length, and extends J stroke beyond the end of the fine line. 
The fine line of the K meets the vertical stroke f of a stroke 
above the bottom line. The slanting stroke of the K (measur- 
ing on fine line) intersects the fine line 1 stroke from the 
vertical stroke. The left-hand stroke of the M is not given full 
width on the top line, in order to leave as much space as 
possible within the letter, and at the same time to avoid too 
great a projection beyond the left fine line. The intersection of 
the middle stroke and fine line is ^ stroke from the bottom, 
and the letter is 5J strokes in width. The letter N is ^ stroke 
narrower than the average width of the letters, and the slanting 
stroke intersects the fine line ^ stroke above the bottom. The 
lower line in the slanting stroke intersects the left-hand vertical 
line 1 stroke below the top. The and Q are 3^ strokes wide. 
The tail of the Q is entirely outside of the letter in this style, 
and is somewhat of the form of a cyma, tangent to the outside 
of the letter below and to the right of the center line of the 
opening. The lower line line of the P is f stroke above the 
bottom line. Notice that the width of the stroke of the S, 
where it joins the fine line, diminishes very rapidly, and is not 
a gradual reduction, as in the previous slants. The upper fine 
line is jV' within the outline of the letter, and the lower 
projects ^". The letter t/ possesses two very small spurs in its 
lower portion, and is thickened to twice the width of the fine 
line at the point where the vertical and curved fine lines come 
together. The T^, W, Y, and also the K carry their fine lines 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 39 

above the line.f jut ^ a stroke, the spurs on the end of which 
are at right i .gies to the Hne of the letter. This feature is 
frequently 'added to the fine line of the letter A, carrying it 
below the line about ^ a stroke and finishing its spurs at right 
angles. The width of the TF is 5 strokes. To proportion the 
W, lay out its full width of 5 strokes on the top line, and from 
the right end of the letter lay off, to the left, 2 strokes on the 
top line, which will locate the point where the middle strokes 
meet; f stroke to the right of a point vertically opposite this, on 
the lower line, will give the point where the right stroke and 
fine line meet, and If strokes to the left will give the other 
corresponding point. The stroke and the fine line of the X 
intersect at a point f stroke from the top line, the letter being 
3 strokes wide on top. The vertical stroke of the Y intersects 
the fine line 1 J strokes above the bottom, and the letter is 3f 
strokes wide on the top line. The lower left-hand angle of 'the 
letter Z diminishes to a point that projects from the letter about 
^ stroke. The character & extends J stroke to the left of a 
vertical line drawn tangent to its upper curve on the left side, 
and the cyma forming the lower right termination, on its fine 
line, is equally divided above and below the point where it is 
joined to this line, the lower curve of the cyma being tangent 
to the bottom line, and the upper curve reaching 1^ strokes 
above it. 

3. The instructions for drawing this plate are much less 
detailed than the other plates, as by this time the student 
should be sufficiently familiar with the letter forms to readily 
design any of the characteristics without detailed explanation. 
His attention is particularly called, however, to the careful spa- 
cing of the letters, particularly those of the top line, as by getting 
these in their proper places it is a simple matter to locate others 
beneath them in their proper relative positions. Having drawn 
the letters carefully in outline, they should now be inked in 
and then blacked, as usual, with a sable brush, after which the 
student should place the date in the lower left-hand comer, 
and his name and class letter and number in the right-hand 
corner, as before. 



40 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 



PIRATE, TITLE: KOMAN (NEW YORK). 

1 . There are no styles of lettering more generally used, Avith 
more convenient application for various pur})oses, than the 
Roman letter. There are three general styles of the Roman 
letter that will be given in this course of instruction, and the 
student's attention is called, particularly, to the ])rincipal char- 
acteristic differences in the styles as well as to the general 
formation and construction of the letters?. In the alphabet 
shown on this j^late, the main characteristic is the thinness of 
the fine line, and the symmetrical proportions of the letters; for, 
though the upper and lower halves of such letters as the E, 77, 
and »S are not identically the same in size and proportion, they 
are arranged to appear so to the eye, and the actual difference 
is difficult to discern, unless the letter is turned upside down. 

2. In drawing this plate, make the four lines of letters 
1^" high, as before, with the spaces between them f", the main 
line of the title |" high, and |" above the top line of the letter; 
the second line of the title -g" high, and f " above the top line of 
letters. The stroke of this letter is f\", or \ of the height; the 
spurs are f stroke on all letters, except the K, F, L, 7] and Z, 
where they are larger, as will be described later. The curve of the 
spur from the fine line to the stroke is, in most cases, a quarter 
circle, the radius of which is i of a stroke, and the center | of a 
stroke from the vertical stroke and the fine line, to both of which 
the quadrant must be tangent. 

3. The letter A is located at the foot of its fine line 2 strokes 
from the left-hand border; the middle fine line is 1\ strokes 
above the bottom line, and the spurs on the end of the fine line 
increase its length to 2 strokes at the base, and that of the 
slanting stroke to o strokes. The lower portion of the B extends 
\ stroke to the right of the upper portion. The letter C is 
designed so that its interior outline forms a perfect ellipse 3 
strokes in width and the height of the letter, the crescent-shaped 
portion of the stroke to the left of the letter being I stroke 
thicker at its center than the vertical strokes in the same 
alphabet. The spurs on the E, F, L, 2] and Z, extending 



/ 






RC 



ABCD 
aKLM 

JUNE 25, /693. 

( Dpvright. 1S90, 



< 



\N, 



:^V<L 



^FGHI 
fOPQR 

XYZ8. 

6789 

JO/yN SAf/r/y, CLASS N2 4-529. 

V Engtnrer Company, 
rved. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 41 

1 stroke at right angles to the fine line, are returned to the fine 
line at an angle of 45°, and are rounded into it with a slight 
curve. The middle fine lines of the B, E, F, and H are | stroke 
above the center of the letter. The top of vertical stroke of the 
(t is f stroke above the center of the letter. 

The letter / is terminated at its left extremity with a ball, or 
disk, the top of which reaches to the center of the letter, the 
small spur at the right extremity marking the intersection of the 
vertical stroke with the expanding curved fine line at a point 
I stroke above the bottom line. The fine line of the K intersects 
the vertical stroke at a point 1| strokes above the bottom line, 
and the slanting stroke intersects the fine line 1\ strokes from 
the latter starting point. 

4. The space within the lower part of the Mis equally divided 
on the lower lettering line by the intersection of the slanting 
stroke and the slanting fine line. The top of the vertical stroke 
is reduced \ its width where the fine line bevels its corner. 
The main point to be observed in this letter is to be sure that 
the intersection of the vertical fine line and slanting stroke, and 
of the vertical stroke and slanting fine line, are the same dis- 
tance from the top of the letter. The iV is | stroke narrower 
than the other letters. The intersection of its slanting stroke 
and left fine line are the same distance from the top line as in 
the letter 3f. The ellipses that form the interiors of the letters 
and Q are 1 stroke narrower than that of the C, owing to the 
fact that a heavy crescent-shaped stroke on either side of the 
ellipse so increases the letter as to give it proper proportions. 
The exterior outlines of the and Q are perfect circles. The 
lower fine line of the letter P is If strokes from the bottom line. 
The tail of the R is located ^ stroke to the left of the right out- 
line of the letter, and is a perfect cyma equally divided by a 
horizontal line ^ the height of the letter. The crescent above it 
is 1 stroke wide at a point 1 stroke from the top line. The 
middle bar is located exactly in the center of the letter. 

5. A center vertical line through the letter S will divide the 
stroke If strokes above the bottom line. The finish of the left 
spur is vertically under the curve of the stroke above, but the 



42 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

finish of the right spur is ^ stroke within the latter, and but | 
the length of the lower spur on the side. The letter U is drawn 
with the lower inside curve a semiellipse, and an increase in the 
thickness of the spur marks the point where the vertical fine line 
becomes tangent to the curve. The IF is 6-i- strokes wide, its 
lower points being 3 strokes apart, 1 stroke to the right and 
2 strokes to the left of a point vertically opposite the middle point 
on the top line, which divides equally the space between the 
inside of the left slanting stroke and the right fine line. The 
intersection of the stroke and fine line of the X is practically in 
the center of the letter, so as to make the enclosed triangles of 
equal area above and below. The fine line of the Y intersects 
the vertical stroke exactly in the center of the letter. The char- 
acter & possesses, for its heaviest stroke, a compound curve, the 
inclination of which is the same as the slanting stroke of the 
letter iY. The width of this character on top is 3 strokes, and 
its lower portion projects ^ stroke to the left of the upper por- 
tion. The intersection of the right fine line and heavy stroke is 
If strokes above the bottom line, and the top of the ball. ter- 
minating the fine line is 24 strokes above the bottom line and 
If strokes to the right of the point of intersection. The light 
strokes of the character are about f the width of the heavy 
stroke. 

6. The lower stroke of the numeral ^ is a perfect cyma, and 
the top is precisely the same as that of the S. The stroke tapers 
off again to a fine line where it joins the left end of the cyma. 
The balls terminating the fine lines of the Roman figures are 
f stroke wider than the straight strokes of the figures, while the 
curved strokes of all the figures are \ wider than the straight ones. 
The space between the two balls at the end of the fine line of the 
figure 3 is about ^ their diameter. The top of the figure 4- is 
finished in the same manner as the right stroke of the letter M. 
The horizontal fine line of the ^ extends 2f strokes to the left 
and 1 stroke to the right of the vertical stroke, and is If strokes 
above the bottom line. The horizontal stroke of the figures 5 
and 7 is different from that of any other alphabet, and consists 
of a double compound curve, the concave and convex portions 



RC] 



ABCD 
aKLM 



I 



1234^ 

JUNE 25, J 833. 

Copyrisht. lSi»9, It 



AN, 



EFGHI 
^OPQR 

i6789 



JO/f/^ SM/TH , CLASS jy° 4529. 

ry Engineer Company . 
jerved. 

2962 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 43 

of which are opposite each other. The lower portion of the 5 is 
similar to the <?, and the vertical fine line is f stroke to the right 
of the left outline of the ball. The width of the lower stroke of 
the 7, on the bottom line, is If strokes, and rests on the bottom 
line 1 stroke to the right of the end of the horizontal . stroke. 
The top line of the lower portion of figure 6 is 2| strokes above 
the bottom line. The ball is about \ stroke within the figure. 
The stroke of figure 8 is precisely the same as that of the letter >S', 
the fine line being reduced where it is brought around and 
intersects the stroke near the center of the figure. The maximum 
thickness of the lighter stroke in the 8 is about \ that of the 
main stroke. The figure ,9 is a reversed 6^ except that the ball 
extends to the outside line of the letter. 

T. This style of letter is used largely by some sign painters 
where the w'ork is to be done in gold or in black letters on a 
white ground, and the fine line is so 
thin that a strong contrast is required 
to bring it into prominence. Some 
designers vary the forms of the 
figures ^, 5, and 6' in a manner that, 
though not strictly classical, adds 
Fig. 1. highly to the effect. Instead of fig. 2. 
terminating the upper fine line wdth a ball, it is finished in a 
point, as shown in Fig. 1, or sometimes equal in width to the 
stroke, as shown in Fig. 2. 

The student will draw these letters as on the previous plates, 
being careful to space'the letters in the top line uniformly, and 
making the letters in the three lower lines of the plate propor- 
tionately; then place the date, name, and class letter and num- 
ber in their proper places. 





PI.ATE, TITIiE: ROIMAN (BOSTON). 

1 . This style of Roman letter possesses a much heavier fine 
line than does the New York Roman, the spurs of the letters 
being cut off on the end to form a fillet the thickness of a fine 
line. These spurs are \ circle as described in previous plate, 
the radius being the additional width of the fine line nearer 



44 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

tlie center of the letter. In the earher form of the Boston 
Roman (the style from which our present style sprung), the 
fine line was much longer on the spur, and triangular corners, 
instead of quarter circles, marked the connection of the spurs 
to the vertical strokes. The early form is now obsolete; only 
occasionally on a very old sign is seen an inscription malving 
use of those letters. The application of this style of letter 
tills a field wherein the practice of the New York Roman would 
be impossible, such as the cutting of letters in stone or marble, 
and the working of letters in leaded glass or sheet metal, 
where the fine line of the New York style of letter could 
not be executetl. The letters are in precisely the same propor- 
tion as those on the previous plate, and are placed f " apart — the 
lettering lines being 1^" high, as before, the large letters of the 
title being f" and small letters ^" high, and |" and y^^" above 
the top line of letters, respectively. The width of stroke in 
these letters is js", and though the fine line is here designed 
as -J stroke, it may be varied somewhat, according to the 
material in which the letters are to be worked. As, for 
instance, the marble, metal, or glass worker may use a heavier 
fine line on some special work than the normal text, while the 
sign painter often reduces the fine line, especially if the letters 
are to be gilded. 

2. In the first line of letters there is no characteristic dif- 
ference between this and the alphabet of the previous plate, 
except as already pointed out in the thickness of the fine line 
and the termination of the ends of the spurs. The top of the 
A and the bottom of the V and If, the middle strokes of the 
M and the slanting stroke of the Y, are not terminated in a 
point, but in a fillet the width of the fine line, for the same 
reason as above described. 

The spurs of the middle fine line of the E and F are joined to 
the fine line in a curve, as is also the si)ur on the end of the hori- 
zontal fine line of the figure 4- The other horizontal fine lines, 
however, do not join the spurs in a curve. 

The letters W and R are somewhat different from those of the 
previous alphabet, as the middle of the top of the IT is finished 



MEDIEV^ 



ABCD 
JKLMl 
STUV\ 

JU/^E 25, J893. 

Copyright, 1S99, by T 



. ROMAN 



H 



FGHI 
^OPQR 




67^9 

JOHN SM/TH, CLASS N9 4-S29. 

1 Engineer Compan,/. 
yyed. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 45 

a full stroke in width, with spurs, instead of being brought to 
a point, as in the previous plate. 

The tail of the R is carried out in a slanting stroke from a 
point the width of 1 stroke from the vertical stroke, extending 
the width of 2 strokes from the vertical stroke, where it inter- 
sects the bottom line with a spur on the right side. 

3. In the numerals there is little change from the other 
style of Roman letter, except in the horizontal strokes of the 
2, .5, and 7. 

The student will draw this plate under the same rules and 
conditions observed in the previous plate, as all the proportions 
and details of the letters are identically the same, except where 
herein pointed out as different. 

The student will draw these letters as on the previous plate, 
inserting date, name, and class letter and number, as before, 
being careful to space the letters uniformly, and making the 
letters in the three lower lines of the plate proportionately. 



PliATE, TITIiE: MEDIEVAL ROMAX. 

1, This style of Roman letter, termed by some authorities 
Antique Roman, belongs to the historic period that its name 
indicates. There are three distinct features shown in this style 
of letter. The first of these features is a small spur added 
above and below the lettering lines; another is a projection of 
the inside line of the stroke beyond the fine line a distance 
of about ^ stroke, as in the top of the letter A and the bottom of 
the N; and the third is the rounding of every angle of the letter 
where two fine lines or a fine line and a stroke intersect. The 
width of the stroke of these letters is |-", or i the height. The 
spur is 1 stroke long, and is joined to the letter 1 stroke above 
the bottom, or below the top line, thus making the curve on 
the inside an exact quarter circle. All letters on this plate 
are o strokes in width, with the exception of such letters as 
have been heretofore described as always exceeding or falling 
short of these Hmits. 

2. In the letter A, the fine line intersects the stroke at the 
point of the letter, and though the stroke on its inside is carried 



46 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

past the fine line, the intersection takes place precisely as though 
this peculiarity did not exist. The horizontal fine line of the A 
is IJ strokes above the bottom of the letter. The lower curved 
portion of the B extends ^ stroke beyond the upper curve, and 
the middle bar is 2f strokes above the bottom line. The spurs 
of the C, G, and S, and of the numerals 1, 2^ 3, 5, and 7, are 
finished with a fine line or secondary spur above or below the 
lettering line. In these three letters this little spur is opposite 
the point of the main spur; it should not exceed ^ stroke in 
length, and is not vertical, but nearly so. The middle fine lines 
of E, F, and H, and the top of the vertical stroke of the G, are 
2f strokes from the bottom line. 

The letters E and F are ^ stroke narrower than the regular 
width of the letters. The L is one stroke narrow^er, the N ^ stroke 
narrower, the M 1 stroke wider than letters of regular width, and 
the W is 3^ strokes wider. The Y is ^ stroke, and the char- 
acter (fc is 2 strokes, wider than the average width of the letters. 
The vertical stroke of the letter G has a spur added at the point 
"where the curved line and the bottom of the letter intersects 
with it. This spur is about J stroke in length. The letter J is 
4^ strokes in width, and extends 1 stroke below the line, the 
ball being 1 stroke in diameter and crossing ^ stroke over the 
line. The curved portion is tangent to the ball of the left-hand 
portion, and intersects wuth the vertical stroke of the letter on 
the right side 1 stroke above the bottom line. 

3. The A", like the letter A, has the inside of the slanting 
stroke projecting across its fine line; the intersection of the 
slanting stroke of the fine line is 2 strokes from the vertical 
stroke, and the fine line joins the vertical stroke 1^ strokes above 
the bottom. The spur on the end of the fine line of the L, 
as of all other horizontal fine lines of this alphabet, extends 
outwards as shown, though on this letter the incline is some- 
w'hat more than on the E, F, or T. 

The slanting stroke and the fine line of the 31 intersect mid- 
way between the fine line and vertical stroke of the letter, both 
intersections of the fine line and stroke at the top of the letter 
being 1 stroke below the top line. The projection of the upper 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 47 

side of the slanting stroke on the right fine hne of the N makes 
this letter the full width of 5 strokes. 

The letters and Q are circles on the outside, and the ellipses 
within, instead of being vertical, are inclined to the left, so that 
the longitudinal axis of the . ellipse is about 1 stroke to the 
left on the top line. 

The lower fine line of the letter P is 2| strokes from the 
bottom line of the letter. The fine line of the R is 2^ strokes 
above. The tail of the R begins 1^ strokes from the vertical 
stroke of the letter, and extends to twice this distance on the 
bottom line. 

The spurs of the letter S are unequal in length, and the lower 
one is largely under the upper curve of the letter, while the 
upper one is ^ stroke within a line of the lower curve. The 
horizontal stroke of the letter is 2^ strokes from the bottom line. 

The letter W is 8^ strokes wide on top and 3f strokes wide on 
the bottom, and the intersection of the inside fine line and the 
right side of the stroke is 4 strokes from the left side of the letter. 
The interior triangles of the letter should all be of the same area. 

The fine line of the X intersects the stroke ^ stroke above 
the center of the letter, and the fine line of the F joins the stroke 
exactly in the center of the letter. 

4. The character & is designed so that the interior of the 
upper and lower portions of the letter incline the same as the 
elliptical interior of the and Q, and some authorities carry this 
feature in the inside line of the C and G, but it is difficult to 
accomplish this without producing a distorted appearance, and 
has therefore been here omitted. The top of the & is 
J stroke wide above the top line, and the right fine line 
expands to a width f stroke at a point almost on the top line. 
The fine line intersects the lower outline of the stroke half way 
between the top and bottom line. The horizontal line of the 
spur is ^ stroke above the center of the letter. 

5. The fine line forming the top of the numeral 1 is at an 
angle of about 60°, and the broadest point extends above the top 
lettering line about ^ the width of a stroke, the fine line extend- 
ing the width of a stroke beyond the vertical stroke of the letter. 



■IS TlIK FOKMATUA' OF M-rrPKHS. i^.'i 

Tho I'urvt'.s i>l' (ho .J, ;i, juul .) :ur si>i>ic\vh:i( sii'kUvshiUXMl, tho 
top of the ,)' hoiiii!; (lie only owe \vi(h a spur :»l)ovt> llio (op litu>. 
Tho A', ,'T, <)', Mini .'^ (cniiiiiatt" in n point I stroke nl>ovt> or Ix'Unv 
tho lino. Tho oharaotori.stio font unM^t" tho (iguros o' and ; in this 
stvlt> is tho tint> lini\ whii'li is inolintnl at an ani;i(> of aluuit .'"H)''. 
Tho our\oil slroko (if tho />' hoi^ins on tho lino lin(> at a point, 
sihout ^ istroko sihovi> tho ota>t(>r of tho lii;uro. Tlu> limiro 4 
(>\ttMuls 1 s(rok(> holow tho hottoni liiu\ and tho horizontal har 
is 1 stroko ahovo tho Intttom lin«', ) stroko in thioknoss, and 
oxtonds \\ strokt^s (o tho right antl .'V'| stn>ko.s to tho loft of the 
horizontal strokt>. Tho vortii'al lino lint> of tho (l_mn-(> ,) is ^ the 
hoight of tho lottor. 

Tho uppi>r tino lino oi (ho (igiiriW/ is }( stroko hohnv tho (op 
lino. Tht> slant iiiL!; stroko of (h(> ligurt> /" (>\tonds 1 stroke* hi>lo\v 
tlu> hottoni liiu>, and its lower ri^lit end is vertieally heUnv tho 
oontor of tho horizoidal stroko of tho linuro on tlu> top lino. 

Tho lo\V(>r inside spaeo of tho tiguro N is niado as Ijvrgo as 
possihlo, in eonforniity with tlu> t)ther lotttMs of its stylo, tlu> 
lowtM- imrtion of (ho 1o(((M- hi-inu; (> strokes in witUh and '^ stroke* 
wiiha- on t^aeli side than tho upjuM- portion. Tlu> lun-izontal 
porti(>n of the stroko is 'J'|' stn>kos aln>ve tlu> hottoni lino. Tlu> 
tiguro .'' is a rovorsod o', (he Knvor tine lino hoiiig •,' strc^ko ahovo 
(ho lH>t((Mn lino. 

'l'lu> student will oxiH-uto all the win'k on this plate as in (ho 
j)rovio\is plates, {niying partieular a(ti>ntion to the «listinguisliiiig 
oharaoteris(i(>s of the lottt>r, ooniplt^ting tlu* platt* with the (late, 
name, and olass lottor ind nuniher in their proper |>hu"Os. 



ri.vri., niLK: i.owi.u-c vsk iioimaist. 

1. The lower ease of tho l\)ur varietii's of Koiiian K>ttor are 
given on this i^late, in order h>slunv tlu>i'OiiiparativeditTereneos in 
(luir goiuM'al design. The plate is divided sonunvhat ditTorontly 
from the pri'vions ones, tlu> lowest line heing ij" ahovo tho lower 
hordor lino. A mother lino drawn i.'" ahovo will mark tho spaeo 
for (ho last tivo lott^M's of ihoalphahet. A similar i|" separating 
spao(* and a lino §" ahovo this will mark the (irst letters of tlu> 
al]>hahot. Tho upi^M- strokes of those letters extend p" ahovo 



LoAver 



abcdefghij 
abed ^w 



V^'tiAi 



abcdefohij 



"ROHkH W^wevllW-. 



VW 

inffliniD vwYn 



\A^\^\^l 



abcdefohij 



VW 



JU./^E £5, /693. 

Copyright, 1899, by 1 
All 



1! Roman. 



Imnopqrstu 

rstu 




iAKH 



Imnopqrsiu 

1 YiniXXXXLCDM 

Imnopqrstu 
yz 

^ JONN SMITH, CLASS N° 4529. 

Engineer Company. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 49 

this line, and J" space is left between their tops and the 
numerals. 

The line containing the numerals is ^" high, and the space 
between it and the first letters of the French Roman alphabet 
is fV'. The last five letters of the French Roman alphabet are 
drawn fV below the first line of letters of this alphabet, and all 
letters above it, except the titles, are f" high. The space 
between the top of the French Roman and the lower line of 
letters above is l^V'? ^^^ space between the upper letters is f". 
The projection of the letters above the top, or below the bottom, 
lettering line is the same as in all three alphabets. 

2. Only eight letters of the Boston Roman alphabet are 
shown, as this alphabet is practically the same as the New York 
style in every respect, excepting the proportionate widths of 
stroke and fine line, and any such other details as would arise 
from a difference of fine line and the way it finishes. These 
details have been explained in connection with the plate contain- 
ing the capital letters in previous alphabets, and need not be 
repeated here. The bottom part of the vertical stroke of the 
a curves to a point in the New York alphabet, and finishes with 
a fillet at the end of a quarter circle in the Boston. The same 
difference will be observed in the finish of the vertical strokes of 
all letters in these two alphabets. 

3. In the French Roman this termination in the letters is 
different, branching off at an angle from the vertical stroke and 
carrying both sides parallel, making a spur on one side and a 
bevel on the other side of the stroke. 

The curve of the a is the same in the New York and Boston 
alphabets, bending downward to its intersection with the vertical 
stroke, while in the French Roman alphabet it intersects with, 
the vertical stroke in an upward direction. 

In the New York and Boston alphabets, the ball on the ter- 
minal of the upper fine line of the a and other letters is the 
same, but in the French Roman these letters are finished with a 
thickening of the fine line. 

The width of the stroke in the first three alphabets is ^", but 
that of the Medieval Roman is ^ less. The top stroke of the b, 



50 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

as well as that of all vertical strokes, except the t, in the New 
York and Boston alphabets, is horizontal, while the bottom 
stroke in each case is the reverse of the letter a. 

The top of the c is the reverse of the top of the a; the letter d 
is the reverse of the b in each alphabet, except the Medieval 
Roman, the fine line of which intersects the stroke at the top of 
the body of the letter. The stroke of the e is cut off at a bevel 
in the first two alphabets, and brought to a point in the fine 
line in the lower two. The curved stroke of the latter is 
crescent-shaped. 

The cross-line of the/ in the first two alphabets is finished as 
a spur, but in the lower two it is a bar ^ stroke wide, extend- 
ing f the width of the letter. 

The letter g of the first alphabet extends | its height below 
the line. The top part of the g is equal to the o and the bottom 
is a cym<", the right point of which continues in a fine line to 
the line below. The extreme lower portion of the g is the same 
in the first two and in the Medieval alphabet, except as to pro- 
portion, the latter being broader and more elongated, while the 
French alphabet differs in this respect by the omission of the 
return of the fine line. 

There is little variety in the /(, i, or ; of any of the alphabets, 
except as to width and weight of the stroke. The tail of the r 
in the first two alphabets is practically the same; in the third it 
forms a half cyma, but in the fourth one it meets the fine line, 
terminating in a ball. The s of the Medieval Roman alphabet 
thickens at the ends of the fine line, and terminates with a fine- 
line spur in the same manner as the capital" letter of that 
alphabet. 

The last five letters, with the exception of the y, are closely 
allied in design to the capitals of the same alphabet, and the 
letter y is similar to the letter v with its fine line carried below 
the bottom lettering line and finished as shown. 

4. There are no set rules governing the width of the stroke, 
the space between the strokes in the Roman numerals alwa3's 
depending on the circumstances under which the characters are 
used. On a circle, such as a clock dial, the stroke is light and 



0rrni 






^l//V£ 25. /893. 



Ic^i 



t^O///V 5M/TH. CLA55 //9 4529. 
HK infer Company. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 51 

the space does not greatly exceed the fine line in this case. The 
numerals V and X are condensed as much as possible. The line 
at the top and bottom of the letter in many cases does not 
extend across the points of the V, as shown in the plate, but are 
cut off in the form of a spur for each individual numeral. 

The numeral ^ in some cases is written ////, and in others IV. 
There is no rule governing which shall be used, although custom 
has made the former almost universal in dialing. In nearly all 
cases where these letters occur to represent numerals, they are 
condensed much more than any other letters of the same style 
on the same tablet or in the same inscription. 

In the use of the Medieval Roman alphabet it was formerly 
customary to leave no space between the various words of the 
inscription, but to separate the words merely by a period, in the 
same manner as the numerals. 

The student will draw this plate according to the directions 
given, proportioning the letters as directed, inserting the small 
titles over each alphabet, and observing particularly the charac- 
teristic differences existing in each one. After the plate is inked, 
insert the date in the lower left-hand corner, and the name and 
class letter and number in the lower right-hand corner. 



PliATE, TITLE: GERMAN TEXT. 

1. The German Text is a style of letter originated toward 
the end of the Medieval period, and is closely allied to the Old 
English in many of its details. The identity of the letters 
themselves are somewhat more obscure than the Old English 
letters, as their general outlines are intended to conform more 
closely to the earlier styles. Some of the letters, such as the 
0, Q, S, etc., are scarcely recognizable as being the same char- 
acters with which we are familiar in the Roman type. This 
alphabet, like the Old English, is composed almost exclusively 
of combinations of cymas and crescents. The letters are not 
sufficiently regular to permit of a detailed description of each 
of their numerous proportions, and the student must use his 
judgment and measure by the eye to determine if the propor- 
tions of his letter are or are not in accordance with the plate. 



52 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

Draw the lower line of the lower-case letters y^g" above the 
lower border line. Make the lower-case letters j^" high, with 
a space of j" between the bottom line and the line for the long 
strokes above, which is y^y" from the bottom of the upper line 
of letters. The long letters extend above the line ys". Between 
the tops of the long letters and the bottom of the last line 
of capital letters is a space of f", and the capitals are 1" high 
and -^" apart. The title is yV above the top line of letters, its 
capitals being ^^" high, while its lower-case letters are i%", or 
in the same proportion as the lower-case letters below in the 
plate. In this alphabet the vertical strokes are ^", and the 
curved strokes at the point of maximum width are J stroke 
wider. The vertical strokes of nearly all the letters in the 
capitals and lower case are cut at an angle of 45°, their bottoms 
terminating in two spurs on the sides, to which is added a 
fine line on the right end, while the fine line is added to the 
left at the top. The proportion of this may be more clearly 
seen by a reference to the figure, which shows the vertical 
stroke together with the diagonal stroke, showing the relative 
position of each if they were separated. At a of the lower-case 
letters is shown the characteristic of the vertical stroke termi- 
nating on the bottom line with its point to the right of the 
center of the stroke. It will be observed 
here that the points of this stroke, to the 
fine lines extending from them, are but the 
angles of a small rectangle, the width of 
which is equal to the stroke and the length 
of which is equal to about IJ strokes. This 
small rectangle is set with a point on the 
left of the center line of the stroke of the 
letter, diagonally opposite the point resting on the lower line 
of letters and its sides inclined at an angle of 45°. This 
rectangle is changed to suit the width of letter and the part 
with which it is to be united. In the lower-case i and ; it is 
set with its principal angle on the center line of the stroke; 
in the p it is set with its right angle on a line with the outside 
of the vertical stroke. This brings the projection of the stroke 
suflftcient to the left to cause it to intersect with the vertical 




§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 53 

stroke on the left of the letter, when the upper left-hand angle 
is slightly extended. In the capital letter^, it will be observed 
that the cyma and crescent-shaped stroke, forming its upper 
left side, are both repeated in several letters, while either one 
or the other stroke is to be found in all of the letters. The 
width of these capital letters is about equal to their height, with 
the usual variation in letters, which are always exceptions, 
such as the M, W, etc. The M and W are 50 per cent, wider 
than the other letters in both the upper and lower cases. 

2. The principal thing in laying out this German Text is to 
give all the curved strokes the proper angle. Inaccuracy in pro- 
portion, either as to length or thickness, does not mar the appear- 
ance of the letter to such an extent as does the placing of the 
strokes at an improper angle. Many of the letters, when closely 
examined, will be found to be very much alike, and the stroke 
of the curved formations, once mastered, has only to be changed 
around and its size altered to make it a simple matter to com- 
bine it in any of the letters. Draw the vertical stroke of the 
A ^1" to the right of the left border line. Draw the slanting 
part of the stroke, with its point and spur, as above described. 
Construct the half cyma of a sufficient length to make the letter 
5 strokes wide, and draw the vertical cyma and crescent stroke, 
the latter to within f stroke of the vertical and the former 
f stroke from the latter. The upper left strokes of the V are 
similar in outline, but different in proportion, to those of the 

A. A half cyma forms the lower right curve of the B, and a 
full cyma, terminating in a ball, forms the lower stroke of the 

B. A short, thick cyma forms the top stroke of the letter, and 
finishes at a point directly over the extreme outside curve of 
the lower portion. The C is in outline a crescent, within 
which is hung from the fine line a cyma, the bottom of which 
is continued in a fine line and curved parallel to, and f" from, 
the lower stroke of the letter. The top of the letter is finished 
on the top line with a half cyma. The lower stroke of the D is 
similar to that of the B, but longer and thinner. It rests on 
the bottom line and swings around to the left again, similar to 
the stroke of the B, but continues past the vertical stroke at the 



54 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

top of the letter and curls up on the left side. The vertical 
stroke is then drawn as a evma; its point pierces the top stroke, 
and its curved tine line is tangent to the bottom stroke. The 
letter E is similar to the C, except the addition of its ball and 
fine line. The letter F combines the two curves of the lower 
parts of two cynias, and is crossed at the top with a horizontal 
cyma, a ball and fine line similar to the E completing the 
characteristic of the letter. The left stroke and interior of the 
G is similar to the C, except that its interior cyma does not hang 
from the fine line, but crosses it, and its lower right fine line is 
continued around, deepening into a heavy semicyma, the inside 
line of which touches the vertical stroke and the top of which 
continues outward and upw'ard, terminating in a ball at the top 
line. The letter H is composed of a vertical cyma, with a ball 
on its lower end and a semicyma on its upper end. The right 
stroke is a crescent, the left end of which terminates in a small 
hollow-sided rectangle, 1 stroke in each direction. 

3. The letters /and J, combined in one character here, are 
very similar to the F, except that the lower strokes are much 
more inclined and there is no ball and fine line. In the 
letter 7v the left-hand vertical stroke does not begin with a 
ball, but starts from a small rectangle, and curves, tangent to 
the lower line, into a fine line and thence into a broad stroke 
at its center, and diminishes at its top line, where it again 
becomes tangent and returns to the front of the letter as a 
part of the fine line. Under this fine-lined arch, which 
is h stroke above the line, is drawn a small semicyma, and 
under the semicyma are drawn the fine line and lower 
slanting stroke of the letter. The letter L is similar to the 
letter J reversed, but not quite so large. Its vertical cymas, 
too, are not inclined. The letter M is composed of the two 
crescent strokes terminating at the bottom in two semicymas, 
the points terminating below the line and finishing on the 
right side with a cyma and vertical stroke. The left stroke 
of the i\" is similar to the left stroke of the A, except that 
the crescent stroke is brought down full to the bottom line 
and the semicyma grows out of it to the left, as in the M. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 55 

4. The letter combines the strokes of the letter Dm a 
somewhat different manner. The vertical cyma inside the D 
is moved to the exterior edge, so that its center rests just to 
the right of the hall on the lower line. The right-hand top 
stroke is carried over, intersecting the vertical cyma at a point 
directly over the right-hand side of the ball of the lower stroke. 
The letter Q is precisely similar to this, except the tail. The 
letter P possesses a long vertical stroke, terminating below the 
line 2 strokes and tapering off to within ^ of its width at 
the center. The upper left half of this stroke is precisely 
the same as that in the iV, the upper right half supporting 
a semicyma, the lower point of which is tangent to the end 
of a semicyma resting on the lower line. There is considerable 
similarity between the letter R and the letter iT, though careful 
observation shows that their details are entirely different in 
arrangement! The right lower stroke of the it is a vertical 
stroke terminating in a curve; the left stroke is a duplicate 
of the left stroke of the N^ the difference being that where the 
vertical stroke intersects the top stroke the R reaches a hori- 
zontal line, which extends from its vertical stroke to its 
crescent stroke, while the N has no such detail. The stroke 
of the S is a horizontal cyma on top, a horizontal crescent at 
the bottom, and a horizontal cyma of reversed curves in the 
middle. The characteristics of the strokes in the T are readily 
understood, but a strong resemblance would be observed in 
the general outline of the U and that of the J, and on this 
account many German printers use a letter identical with the 
lower-case u. The V is also similar to the i?, except that its 
right stroke is a cyma supporting a small cyma, and its bottom 
stroke is a cyma attached to a ball. The letter W is very 
irregular. The upper left stroke is the upper left stroke of the 
A and the lower left stroke is the lower left stroke of the 
B. The vertical, or nearly vertical, intermediate stroke is 
joined to the crescent after terminating into a looped fine line; 
the extreme right stroke is a cyma supporting another cyma 
similar to the right half of the U, but of different proportions. 
The middle stroke is then proportioned to conform itself to 
these other two. The X is simply a vertical stroke crossed by 



56 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

a horizontal stroke. The Fis a combination of the left strokes 
of the U and A, with a vertical cyma and fine-line curve. The 
Z is composed of two crescents and a cyma, the middle stroke 
of which is 3 strokes above the lower line. The character & is 
shown in two forms, the first one composed of a vertical cyma, 
terminating in its upper end with a ball, and with two tangent 
cymas for its right stroke, being essentially the original German 
character, which is rarely used except in signs and inscriptions 
involving firm names essentially of a German character. The 
second ct- is a modification of the Old English form of the 
letter applied to this text for modern use in such places where 
the German text will be used to write EngHsh words or express 
English names. 

5. The lower-case letters are similar in many respects, 
in regard to their formations, to the lower-case letters of the 
Old English alphabet. The stroke of these letters is f that 
of the capitals, and the space enclosed between the vertical 
strokes of the a, ^, g, m, n, etc. is about 1 stroke. The 
letters 2h '^> *^) ^"^ V fiiiish above the line with a semicyma; 
the top of the letter / finishes horizontally with a cyma, while 
a crescent-shaped stroke is inserted between the crossing of the 
k and the vertical line. The student will give the closest 
attention to the proportioning of these letters, comparing the 
details of each lower-case letter with those of the Old English 
alphabet and observing the strong points of similarity between 
different letters and this alphabet. For instance, observe that 
the d and o are precisely the same in outline, except that the 
former letter is continued above the line with a semicyma. 
The c and e are very nearly alike, with the exception of the 
fine line. The r and the x are identical, with the exception of 
the finish on the bottom line. The middle stroke of the z is in 
the center of the body of the letter, and the inclined stroke 
at the top is at an angle of 45°. 

Having completed laying out the alphabet, the student will 
ink in this plate, as before, inserting the title in its proper 
place, and placing the date in the lower left-hand corner and the 
name, class letter and number in the lower right-hand corner. 



"Q-iSYm 







^^A'f: 25, /a 93. 



Copyright, 1899. by 
All 



-t3-* 



¥(&'€^mW€\ 




iTinnopqr 




JO^N 5M/TH, CLASS N° 4529. 



•y Engineer Company . 
trved. 



I 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 57 



PLATE, TITIiE: CHURCH TEXT. 

1 . This style of letter is seen in many of the old English 
cathedrals, and was originated in the monasteries of the 
Medieval period. It has been used in all church work, for 
stained-glass inscriptions and ecclesiastical decorations, and is 
seldom used for other purposes. It bears a strong resemblance 
to the Old English letter, which will be discussed later on, but 
in many respects it is simpler. In drawing this plate the first 
line is y^" above the margin line, and the lower-case letters are 
\^" high in the body and project fV' above and below the line. 
The space between the body line of the lower-case letters is 
^", and between the topmost line of the lower-case letters and 
bottom line of the capitals is |". The three lines of capitals 
are each 1" high and are spaced ^" apart. The title is §" above 
the top line of letters, and its capitals are f" high, while its 
lower-case letters are f this height. It is practically impossi- 
ble, in an alphabet of this character, to give a direct proportion 
of the various parts of the letter in terms of its stroke and fine 
lines. The vertical strokes are -^" in width and -^" wider in 
all curved strokes. In manuscript and inscriptions, either 
painted or drawn, the fine line is usually as thin as it can be 
made. In carved work and stained-glass work the fine line is 
governed by the material in which it is executed. The widths 
of these letters vary largely, but, like many of the more geomet- 
rical alphabets, the average width is about equal to the height. 
The letters A, H, R, S, and T are each shown in two forms, 
the choice of which is left entirely to the tastes and desires of 
the letterer, as either style belongs to this alphabet. The stroke 
forming the upper right-hand finish of the B occurs in a more 
or less curved form in the letters H, N, 0, P, Q, and R, and is 
a combination of cymas and semicymas. The cyma has been 
used in the other alphabets, but forms an actual component 
part of the letter in this, as well as in the Old English and 
German Texts, and forms one of the most important character- 
istics of the letter. The student should therefore practice draw- 
ing the cyma separately until its form is so familiar to him 
that he can draw it in any position and in any direction. 



58 THE FORxMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

2. In the first form of the letter A the cyma occurs 3 times, 
and each time, with but one exception, in a different position. 
The stroke at the bottom of the i? is a cyma, the terminals of 
which are continued, to form a fine line, and again spread into 
semicymas, constituting the lower curved portion of the letter. 
The heavy curved stroke of the C is crescent-shaped, its 
interior vertical stroke being another reproduction of the cyma. 
In drawing these letters, gauge carefully by the eye the space 
between the strokes and also between the fine lines. The two 
vertical strokes of the B, and all other letters where vertical 
strokes are used together, are spaced about ^ stroke apart, 
whereas the vertical cyma, as it occurs in the C and (?, is 
1 stroke from the inside of the crescent stroke, and the vertical 
strokes inside the and Q are spaced 1 stroke away from the 
point on the top line forming the outline of the letter. The 
lower finishing stroke of the D is similar to the B, whereas the 
upper stroke, starting at the left extremity of the letter, sweeps 
down as an elongated cyma and diminishes to a fine line at the 
same point as did the same detail in the B. The two points, 
or spikes, tbat project from the left of some of the letters are 
located about the middle of the vertical stroke, except in the 
A, where they are raised to clear the fine hne. The vertical 
strokes from which they project, as well as the fine lines that 
extend from these strokes in some letters, such as the C and iV, 
are beveled off top and bottom at an angle of about 30°. 

3. All except the curved lines of the letters should be drawn 
with the triangle; those being at the 30° angle can thus be easily 
rendered parallel. The letter £" is a combination of vertical 
strokes, cymas, and, semicymas. The middle semicyma and 
the fine line that intersects it with the seinicyma at the top, 
intersects the vertical stroke at the center. The lower stroke 
of the F carries this letter 1| strokes below the line. The 
letter G is very similar to the C, except that the crescent form- 
ing its left stroke is vertical, and its right stroke is brought 
around and finished as a semicyma with a like detail inside, as 
occurs on the bottom of F. The two styles of H are almost 
identical in their vertical strokes and top, the main difference 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 59 

being in the character of the curve that forms the right pro- 
jection of the letter. The letters / and / are combined in one 
character in this alphabet, the vertical strokes of which are 
similar to the F, except that the right one finishes with a curve 
at the bottom instead of a straight line, as in the former letter. 
The K is similar to other letters in detail, except in its right 
strokes, one of which is a compound curve and the other 
straight, inclining to the left at an angle of 60°. The lower 
stroke of the L finishes on one end with a curve, and on the 
other with a beveled and fine line at an angle of 45°. The 
vertical strokes are the same as those of similar letters, and two 
fine lines are attached to the horizontal stroke, which, with that 
of the r, by the way, are the only straight horizontal strokes in 
the entire alphabet. 

4. The middle stroke of the M differs somewhat from 
the previous details of the alphabet, its upper end bending 
in full width to meet the fine line, while its lower end is 
finished with a spur on each side projecting J stroke, coming 
to a point at the bottom. The extreme right stroke of the If is 
a cyma. The right stroke of the N is similar to the stroke of 
the second iJ, but wdth less curvature. The 0, P, Q, and R 
project f stroke above the top line, in the and Q the point 
where this projection occurs being \ stroke to the right of the 
center of the letter. This gives the exterior of the letter a pear 
shape; the left stroke forms a crescent, and the right one a com- 
pound curve, between which the vertical stroke intersects the 
top of the letter with one of the lower fine lines. There are no 
new details in the letter P, the stroke being simply a combina- 
tion of the previous curves. The first variety of R resembles 
the B in its upper portion, and the K in its lower portion. 
The second variety possesses that peculiarity of twist at the 
upper end of its right vertical stroke that somewhat resembles 
the middle stroke of the M^ and finishes like the top stroke of 
the D. The letter S will be found a difficult one to make; the 
fine lines of the second one and the lower part of the first one, 
being at an angle of 45°', may be drawn first and used as guides 
to proportion the letter. The letter in either of its forms is 



60 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

very similar; the first one is finished at the right of the half 
cyma with a ball, the lower fine line also terminating with a 
ball, somewhat after the manner of the Gothic style, though 
this and the T are the only two letters in the capitals of this 
alphabet that are so decorated. The first T is similar to the C 
in regard to its crescent stroke, while that of the second is car- 
ried its maximum width to the right, where it is cut off with a 
fine line* and ball. The right stroke of the U is the reverse of 
the middle stroke of the M. The Fis a combination of cymas 
and straight strokes directly proportionate, and the W is similar 
to the V in its right portion, with the addition of the vertical 
stroke on the left side. In drawing the X, make the com- 
pound-curved diagonal stroke first. Through its center draw 
the cyma. The fine lines will then intersect with the diagonal 
stroke at the angles between it and the cyma on the left-hand 
side, and are 1 stroke apart if carried parallel. The two 
strokes, or half cymas, of the Y are indentically alike, and are 
spread apart sufficiently to make their two points 4 strokes 
apart on the top line. The crescent finish of the letter extends 
3 strokes below the line. The diagonal stroke of the letter Zis 
at an angle of 45°. Its full length over the break is 3| strokes. 
The break is 1 stroke wide on its inside, and the two fine lines 
intersect on the top line 2 strokes to the right of the diagonal 
stroke. The bottom of the letter, where the right point inter- 
sects with the bottom line, is directly below the corner of the 
lower side of the upper part of the diagonal stroke. 

5. The stroke in the lower-case letters of this alphabet is the 
same as the vertical stroke of many of the capitals; the bottoms 
of the letters are in nearly every case terminated with two spurs 
extending to the right and left f stroke above the bottom line. 
These lower spurs vary slightly in their projections, according 
to the letter, and are either a full stroke or a half stroke, the 
difference being readily discernible at a glance. The enclosed 
letters, such as a, 6, and g^ are 2 strokes wide on the inside. 
The letters m and w have their vertical strokes If strokes apart. 
The letters r and x are precisely alike, except the cross-bar of 
the X and curled terminal below the line. The letter t is crossed 



<^ @(j 



ctven 




Copyright, 1899. by T/i 
AUrl 



lie 



M^^IU 




^7800 

lopc^rrfuuuixiji 

^0///y SAf/r//, CLASS /V9 4529. 

'y Engineer Company, 
erved. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 61 

by a similar terminal, which extends from the upper line of the 
body of the letter to a point 1^ strokes below the line. There 
is nothing about this alphabet that should cause the student 
any difficulty in its execution. Close attention should be given 
to each individual letter, noting all its peculiarities before an 
attempt is n)ade to draw it. Then, if the student's design of 
the letter appears in any way unlike the original, he should 
study the above, learn the point of his error and correct it. In 
this letter, as in the previous alphabets, the curved strokes are 
somewhat heavier than the straight strokes, particularly the 
crescent- shaped strokes, the long compound-curved strokes not 
being so much so as the crescents, but at the same time heavier 
than the straight strokes. These variations are slight, but the 
fact that they exist must be noted in each case. 

After drawing the plate, the student will insert the title, as 
shown, place the date in the lower left-hand corner, and the 
name and class letter and number in the lower right-hand corner. 



PliATE, TITLE: GOTHIC. 

1. This style of alphabet was created during the closing cen- 
turies of the Medieval period, and is associated historically, as 
well as in its outline, with the ogival, or pointed arch, which at 
this time existed in the Gothic architecture. The letter in 
modern use is applied to church decoration, for the purpose of 
writing religious quotations, and in printing certain kinds of 
church literature, for which it is appropriate on account of its 
origin in the ancient monasteries. It is more legible than the 
regular Church Text, and therefore more often used, both for 
rhurch work and in the province of the commercial letterer. In 
dividing the plate with lettering lines, the bottom line of the 
lower-case letters is f" above the lower margin line, and the 
height of the body of the lower-case letters is f"; the stroke of 
the long letters extends f " above and below the line. From the 
top line of tlie body of the lower-case letters to the bottom hne 
of the numerals is f", and the numerals are yf" in height, with 
a space ^' h>etween them and the lowest line of capitals. The 
capital letters are 1" high, with ^' between them, and the title is 



62 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §8 

■^^" high; the lower case of the title is jV' fi'oni the top margin 
line. The stroke of the letters in this alphabet is ^", and the 
fine line is \ stroke. The width of the letters average closely to 
5 strokes, though there are many variations, owing to the 
eccentricities of outline. All the curved strokes of a letter are 
f stroke wider than the straight strokes. In the capital letters 
A, G, J, P, and T, and in the lower-case letters a, h, j, t/, and z, 
there is a fine line terminating in a round hall at the end of the 
letter; the diameters of these balls being 1 stroke in the capital 
letters, and somewhat more than 1 stroke in the smaller letters. 

2. In the letters A, E, and F, where a middle bar extends 
entirely through the width of the letter, this bar is ^ the stroke. 
On the top line, the letter A measures 6 strokes in width between 
the small knobs, which are equal in thickness to the fine line. 
This horizontal fine line, at the top of the letter, extends only 
IJ strokes to the right of the vertical stroke, and the curved 
line of the letter rounds out from the vertical stroke to a point 
2 strokes distance at the horizontal bar, terminating in a ball If 
strokes below the line. The vertical stroke of the A is 6 strokes 
from the border line, and between it and the B are 4 strokes. The 
vertical stroke of the B is but 4 strokes in length, and the fine 
lines curving from the center of the letter at the top and bottom 
line cut the ends of the stroke in a slanting direction, projecting 
beyond and terminating in a ball ^ stroke in diameter, the 
center of which is 1 stroke to the left of the letter. The inside 
space of the B, at the top, is 2^ strokes, the bottom is | of a 
stroke wider, and the points in the center of the curved strokes 
are 1|- strokes above the bottom, and below the top, line, 
respectively. Between the B and is a space of 2 strokes, and 
from the point of the C to its vertical fine line is 5J strokes. 
The left half of the interior of the C is a semiellipse, and the 
curved fine lines, top and bottom, are thicker as they approach 
the vertical fine line and become nearly tangent on the inside. 
Between the fine line of the C and the stroke of the D is & space 
of 3f strokes, and the latter letter is 5J strokes wide in tiie 
center. The left half, including the stroke and its termination, 
is precisely the same as the left half of the letter B, and the 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 63 

right half the same as the letter C reversed. The general out- 
line of the £■ is a duplication of the C, except that the vertical 
fine line extends 1^ strokes above and below the letter, and 
terminates in small knobs the thickness of the fine line. The 
clear space between the E and the i^ is 4 strokes, and the ver- 
tical full stroke of the F is the same as that of the A reversed. 
The diminishing stroke on the right of the F can be readily 
recognized as an exaggerated spur, the origin of which has been 
seen in the previous alphabets. The inside of the letter is 2f 
strokes wide at the horizontal fine line, which horizontal line is 
2 strokes below the top of the letter. The width of the letter on 
the top line is Q^ strokes, and the finish below the bottom line 
is 1 stroke. The space between the F and G, at the inter- 
mediate horizontal line, is 2 strokes, and the left half of the G 
is constructed in the same manner as the left half of the (7, while 
the right half is similar to the lower half of the B. The dis- 
tance from the lower line to the top of the inside curve is 
3| strokes, and the greatest width of the letter from point to 
point is 6f strokes. 

3. Between the G and the H is 2 strokes, the vertical 
stroke of the latter being the same as that of the F, except 
as to its right finish on the top line. The curved stroke of 
the i7 makes the letter b^ strokes wide and carries it 2 strokes 
below the bottom line. The letter / is 3|^ strokes wide on the 
top and bottom line, 3 strokes from the H at the point of the 
curved stroke of the H, and 2 strokes from the / on the top 
line. The letter J is A\ strokes wide on the top line, and its 
upper horizontal stroke reaches its greatest thickness If strokes 
from the left-hand end. The left-hand fine line, which is 
nearly vertical, terminates in a knob 3 strokes below the top 
line. The ball on the bottom of the / has its center on the 
bottom line and its left side directly under the end of the top 
horizontal stroke. The letter extends 1\ strokes below the line, 
is 3J strokes wide on the bottom line, and its curved stroke at 
the intermediate point reaches a thickness of 1^ strokes, 2>\ 
strokes below the top line. The vertical strokes of the letters 
iT, i, iV, P, and R are formed precisely as the vertical strokes 



64 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

of the other letters, variations being made in their terminations, 
but those variations in no way differ from similar ones in letters 
on the top line. The upper left-hand finish of the P and R is 
precisely the same as that of the B\ the lower horizontal stroke 
of the L is the same as the upper horizontal stroke of the J, 
except that the letter is 5|- strokes long. The curved stroke of 
the N is, in its lower portion, similar to that of the H, while its 
upper portion, where it joins the vertical stroke, is more like 
the D; the width of the letter at the center is 5^ strokes. The 
curved strokes of the K reach a point on the top and bottom 
line that makes the letter 6 strokes wide. Their intersection 
and juncture with the vertical stroke takes place 3 strokes 
above the bottom line. 

4. The letter M is 8^ strokes wide at the center, and 
about ^ stroke less at the bottom line. Its two points on 
the top line are about 3 strokes apart, and its right- and left- 
curved strokes are similar to those of the C, except that 
the enclosed ellipse is narrower. The middle stroke divides 
1 stroke below the top line. The middle stroke of the letter 
at its center is 1 stroke wide, and the two interior ellipses 
are each 2 strokes wide. The letters and Q are in outline a 
duplication of the left portion of the letter 0, the tail of the Q 
being added, as shown, tangent to the center of the letter and 
extending to the right to within J stroke of the outside. These 
letters are 7 strokes wide. The curved stroke of the letter P 
projects from the vertical stroke sufficient to make the letter 
bh strokes wide, and extends below the top line 3 strokes. The 
upper part of the R is precisely similar, except that the ball on 
the interior is only the thickness of the fine line, in diameter, 
instead of the full stroke, as in the former letter. The tail of 
the R is nearly a straight line on its inside, with only enough 
curvature to prevent it from becoming straight; this stroke is 
1^ strokes wide, and its length between the lower ball, 1 stroke 
below the line, and the ball in the inside of the curve of the R 
is exactly 7 strokes. 

5. The letter ^S* is almost entirely included in a rectangle 
7 strokes wide; the spur at the right-hand end on the top line 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 65 

extends to within J a stroke of the corner of the rectangle, 
while the spur on the opposite end of the letter on the 
lower left-hand corner extends the full width of the rectangle. 
The point on the heavy curved stroke touches the right side of 
the rectangle 1^ strokes above the line, while the point on the 
left hand of the rectangle comes within ^ stroke of the side, 
and is also 1^ strokes below the line. The letter Tis similar to 
the letter G, except that both of its curved strokes are of smaller 
dimensions. The top of the intermediate fine line, as it curls 
into the letter, is 3 strokes above the lower line. The horizontal 
stroke at the top of the letter is 5f strokes, and at its greatest 
thickness is 1 stroke wide. The intersection of the fine line of 
the body of the letter, with the crossing stroke at the top, is at 
the center of the letter. The letter U consists of a combination 
of the vertical stroke of the A and the curved stroke of the (7, 
and is 6 strokes wide. The letter V is 7 strokes wide on the 
top line. The right slanting line of the V diminishes in width 
from a full stroke at the top to about h stroke at the bottom, 
where it joins the left slanting stroke. The }F is 8 strokes wide 
on the top line and the right portion is the same as the letter U, 
which is 5^ strokes in width, to which is added a crescent- 
shaped curve and intersecting fine lines, this bringing the entire 
width of the letter up to 8 strokes. The letter X is 7^ strokes 
wide, and the intersection of its curved strokes with the slanting 
stroke is just above the center of the letter. The letter Y is 
7 strokes wide at the top line, and consists in a combination of 
the left stroke of the V and the right stroke of the N. The top 
and bottom strokes of the Z are similar to the bottom stroke of 
the L. The letter is 5|- strokes wide. The spur on the bottom 
of the vertical stroke is 3 strokes long, while that on the top is 
2^ strokes long. 

6. In the numerals the strokes are but -J" in thickness, in 
the straight characters, but extend to twice this thickness in the 
widest part of the curves. The top corners of the 3, 4, 3, and 7 
extend slightly above the line, as do also the lower corners of 
the 2 and 7, as well as the spur on the end of the 1 and 4.. The 
curves forming the sides of the 3, o, 6, 9, and are similar to 



66 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

the curves forming component parts of the capital letters. The 
bottom stroke of the 2, the upper stroke of the 3, the left stroke 
of the 4^, and tops of the 5 and 7 are each a semicyma. The 
horizontal fine line of the 4 extends 4 strokes to the left and 
IJ strokes to the right of the vertical stroke, the width of the 
stroke of the numerals being used for measurement. The inter- 
mediate stroke of the 5 is 4 strokes above the bottom line; of 
the 6, 4^ strokes above the bottom line; of the 8, S^ strokes 
above the bottom line; while the 9 is 2^ strokes above the 
bottom line. 

The stroke of the lower-case letters is -jV' wide. The -width 
of all letters, except the w and m and the single-stroke letters, is 
4^ strokes. The spurs forming the terminations of the strokes, 
at the top and bottom of the letters, are carried from the center 
of the stroke on the top and bottom lines, either way, to a point 
about ^ stroke from the line and ^ stroke from the vertical 
stroke, and are given a slight curve to these points. The 
student should be able to design the other details of this lower- 
case alphabet from the general proportions of the original 
plate, being careful, if necessary, to measure each detail in the 
original, and proportion its length or thickness according to the 
stroke of the letter. 

After executing the work on this plate in pencil, the student 
will ink it in, using the T square and triangle on the straight lines 
of the letters desired, and outlining all the curves and forming 
all the points on the curves of the strokes freehand, excepting 
the circles on the concave sides of the stroke of the capitals and 
numerals, which may be drawn with a compass if desired. The 
diameter of these little circles on the capital letters is ^", and 
on the numerals f that of the capitals. The balls on the 
h, j, y, and z of the lower-case letters are 2 strokes in diameter. 
The ball on the lower-case a is but 1 stroke in diameter. After 
the plate is inked in and the titles put in place, insert the date 
in the lower left-hand corner, and the name and class letter 
and number in the lower right-hand corner. 




JUA/E 25, 1893. 



'ipyright, 1899, by 
Al 




JOHN SM/TH, CLASS N? 4529. 



ry Engineer Company . 
erved. 



THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 67 



PLATE, TITLE: SPENCERIAN SCRIPT. 

1. The term sc7-ipt, in its broadest and earliest application, 
included all styles of writing and printing, but custom has 
reduced the apphcation of the term simply to that form of wri- 
ting executed with the pen, which was formerly called pen text 
or text hand. The reduction to its present classification was 
caused more by the classifying of the other styles and leaving 
the term script to the pen text, rather than setting aside the ^ jn 
text under the name of script, as was done with certain forms of 
early alphabets, such as the Medieval and Church Text. The 
earliest form of pen text was very simple in its construction, but it 
gradually grew complicated with the desire for elaborate lettering. 

About the middle of the present century the form of alphabet 
shown on this plate was originated by Spencer, and gave to the 
world an entirely new and artistic form of text hand. This is 
the form that is used almost exclusively by the letterer and sign 
painter, and for all practical purposes where a shaded letter and 
accurate form is desired. In drawing this plate, the student 
will, as before, outline all letters in pencil, forming the strokes 
of the capitals and small letters of two individual lines, and so 
inking them with a pen, but blacking them in afterward with a 
No. 3 red-sable brush. In inking the lines, attention must be 
given not only to the formation of the curved fine lines and 
strokes, but also to the location and finish of these curves. 
When the letters are inked, it is of more importance that the 
student should secure the proper position for each line than that 
he should be able to form the curves with evenness and perfec- 
tion. He must bear in mind that in executing this plate he is not 
to write the letters; he is not expected to make any one of the 
strokes or curves with a clean even sweep of the hand and have it 
perfect, but on the contrary, every detail of every letter must be 
carefully located and drawn, in order that the finished character 
may be a reproduction of the one on the lettering plate, 

2. In dividing the plate, make the bottom line of the figures 
y above the lower border line. Draw lines limiting the top of 
the figures f" above the lower one; leave a space of ^" between 



68 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

the top of the figures and the bottom of the lower-case letters, 
and draw the lower-case letters yV high. The loops of the 
lower-case letters, such as the g or A, extend ^" below and W" 
above the lettering lines. Between the top of the long letters 
and the bottom of the capitals leave y . Capital letters are 1" 
high — the spaces between them, ^" . The capitals of the titles 
are f" high, and f" above the top line of letters. The small 
letters are -^^" high. 

3. In executing this plate, it will be practically impossible 
to give the student any idea of the exact location of each letter. 

Judgment of the eye in comparison 
with the lettering plate, and close 
attention to the details of the copy, 
are all the guides that he can de- 
pend on to complete the details. He 
should bear in mind that the slant, 
or inclination, of the letters is always 
35°, and in such strokes as those of 
the lower-case letters this angle can 
Fi«- 1- be easily kept; but the stroke that 

governs the capitals cannot be so easily determined. In Fig. 1 
is shown a main stroke, such as forms the body of the letters 
F, L, N, etc., and its relative position to the 35° inclination line 
of the letter The line of the angle is tangent to the stroke at the 
point where the shading begins, and passes through the shaded 
stroke on the bottom line. The divergence of the stroke from 
the line of inclination of the letter is the same in its upper and 
lower portions. 

4. The drawing of these letters by means of inclined-angle 
lines will be found absolutely necessary at first, in order to 
secure satisfactory results, but the student will find, as his eye 
becomes trained, that this angle can be readily judged with great 
accuracy and the work executed entirely freehand. The stroke 
of the lower-case letters is yV) ^^^^ ^^^^ of the capitals •^. The 
shaded stroke of the capitals should, in such letters as have the 
stroke shown in the A and L, be below the center of the letter, 
the maximum width of the stroke being at a point 1 stroke above 





§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 69 

the bottom line. While it is necessary to avoid the shading of 
all fine lines, there are cases, as in the letter E, where two 
shades are necessary in order to balance the letter and give it a 
more graceful appearance; but the shaded portion of a letter 
always represents the downward stroke of a pen or brush, and 
the shading of any of the upward fine lines would be in opposi- 
tion to the characteristic formation of the letters. Every stroke 
of these letters is based upon a combination of the crescent and 
cyma. In the lower-case letters, the maximum thickness of the 
stroke of o, cZ, g, o, and q is above the center 
of the letter. In some alphabets, the tops of 
the letters formed similar to the a have their 
fine lines carried above the top line, as shown 
in Fig. 2, in which case the maximum width f^. 2. 

of the crescent stroke is above the center of the letter, and the 
general effect of the letter is oval. The points at the top of the 
r and s, and also the upper part of the loop of the k, extend 
above the top line. In executing the lower-case letters of 
the* script in sign writing, one of the most difficult details 
is the joining of the fine lines and strokes in such letters 
as a, n, u, etc. 

5. In Fig. 3, the stroke of the letter is shown to be practically 
a straight line until it nears the top or bottom lines at the left or 
right, as shown at a,a, when it commences to curve and at the 

^ \ y''~\ same time to diminish to a fine 

y^ '^/^ M line, which finishes the top or 

.zi .^K.....^m- y. bottom of the stroke. This stroke 

^^ m y/^ and its accompanying fine lines, 
^^ \^l^^^ will be found to exist in the letters 

Fig. 3. a, d, etc. In Fig. 3, the left stroke 

is practically the reverse of the letter i, while the wide stroke 
is the other characteristic stroke that extends through the entire 
lower case. The dotted line through the center of the letter 
shows that the top and bottom of the stroke are duplicates, one 
of the other, and that the fine line, where it curves to join the 
vertical stroke, joins it in exactly the center of the letter. Com- 
parison of this detail with the letters /i, 7n, w, etc. will show its 



70 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

application to the lower-case alphabet. The fine line should 
never intersect a stroke at a point above or below the center of 
the letter. 

6. The two forms of strokes used in some of the capital 
letters are shown in the letters A and B. There are no rules 
governing which of these forms shall be used in the letters 
P, B, and B, under different conditions, this being left entirely 
to the taste of the letterer. The A stroke is used in P on this 
plate. The stroke shown in the letter A takes up a trifle less 
room than the one used in the B, and on that account is some- 
times to be preferred. 

7. Another variation of the capital letters, practiced by- 
many expert letterers, is shown in Fig. 4, wherein the lower 

part of the C is carried 
below the line and the 
first lower-case letter of 
the word is inserted some- 
what within the letter. 
This treatment is appli- 
cable to the letters C, E, 
K, L, and B, and may 
be used in places where 
FiGr4. the space is limited and 

the writing must be condensed, or to give an inscription a more 

graceful and freehand appearance. 

8. The student must pay particular attention to the spacing 
of the inclined lines in the lower case. As said before, the pro- 
portions of strokes cannot well be given, but the horizontal 
■width of most of the letters on a line through their centers will 
make them equal in this dimension to their height, with the 
exceptions of the letters pointed out in other alphabets. Careful 
observations of this, and the inclination of the letter at an angle 
of 35°, causes the student little trouble in the finishing of his 
work. A simple method of laying off the letters at the required 
angle is to make a small triangle of cardboard, one angle of 
which shall be 35°. This may be done b}' taking a piece of 
square card, and from one of its corners measure off a distance 




lykLUA 



MJVOf*{ 




JUNE 25, /893. 

Copyrisht. 1S9'J. by TK 
Allr 



Se^^ipi^ 




RSTUV 





^^^ 67SOO 

JOHN SM/T/y, CLASS NS 4529. 

' En^itu'PT Company. 
'V(d. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 71 

of 4"; at right angles to this, measure off a distance of 2|", and 
join the points so sought with a Hne on which the cardboard 
may afterwards be cut. The two angles opposite the long and 
short sides adjacent to the right angle will then measure 55° 
and 35°, respectively, and the student can use this simple 
appliance for proportioning the inclination of his letters. 

After drawing the plate and inking it in, as described, insert 
the title in its proper place, place the date in the lower left-hand 
corner, and the name and class letter and number in the lower 
right-hand corner. 

PLATE, TITLE: ITALIC SCRIPT. 

1. This style of letter may be generally characterized as a 
Roman letter, the strokes of which incline to the right at an 
angle of 30°, or occasionally to the left at an angle of 20°. It is 
a letter that, after practice, can be executed with great rapidity, 
and is of great value to both the plain letterer and the draftsman. 
The capital letters are almost identical with the New York 
Roman, excepting as to the finishing of the spur on the fine 
lines of the A, K, and V, and occasionally as to the letters 
M, N, W, and Y, when these are finished in the same manner. 
The tail of the R is sometimes dropped ^ of its length below 
the line, but in all other respects the rules governing the pro- 
portioning of the New York Roman letters will apply to these 
capitals. In drawing this plate, draw the line for the top 
of the numerals ^" above the lower border line and make 
the numerals \^" high. The lower-case letters are ^^" high 
in the body of the letter and the first row of letters is yV 
above the top line of the numerals. The five last letters of 
the alphabet are even with the top line that limits the height 
of the numerals. 

2. The long letters of the lower case extend ^" above and 
below the bodies of the letters, and the space from the top of the 
long letters and the first line of capitals above them is ^". The 
capitals are 1" high and f" between each line. The long letters 
and capitals of the title are yV high and ^^g" above the top line 
of letters. The proportion of the capitals and lower-case letters 



72 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

in the title is the same as those in the body of the plate. The 
student will now draw the capital letters, as shown on this 
plate, spacing them by the judgment of his e^^e and proportion- 
ing them according to the rules laid down in the plate for New 
York Roman letters. The lower-case letters have a ^V' stroke 
and average about 5 strokes in width, with the variation hereto- 
fore pointed out in other alphabets. 

The tops of all the long letters are tinished with a tine line 
and curved, as are also the tops of such small letters as /, m, 
and n. The letter/ is reduced to a fine line and finished Avith 
a ball similar to the top of the letter c, the fine line appearing 
above the ball again as though a continuation of its outline. 
The bottom of the letter has an oval form, finishing with a 
small ball similar to the bottom of the letter g. Where the 
letters/,/' occur in the middle of the word, the first reaches only 

to the bottom line of the regular 
letters and is given a slight curve 
and cut off at the bottom, in the 
same manner as the letter p in 
this alphabet. The second letter 
f is then drawn as the one on the 
plate, its curved lower portion 
extending under the first one and 
the cross-line, or horizontal fine 
line, made continuous with the 
two letters, as shown in the figure. The letters j and y are 
finished with a loop below the line, as in the ordinary script, 
the size of the loops varying slightl}', according to the' letter 
adjacent to them. The p and q are carried below the line 
with a full width of stroke, which is finished horizontally, 
though on the q the fine line is returned to the lettering line to 
distinguish it from the g. Either one of the two forms of sand z 
shown in this plate is admissible in ordinary Italic lettering. 
The first form of the letter s is the one usually made where 
there is much lettering to be done, as its form is simpler and it 
can be made quicker. The same rule applies to the second 
form of the letter z. Where two 6''s occur at the end of a word, 
the first form is used and the first letter made a trifle smaller, 




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^o///y SAf/r/y, class a/9 4-529. 



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Wd. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 73 

its top reaching only to the top line of letters. The second, 
however, reaches above the line, as is shown on the plate. 

3. The numerals in this style of letter are precisely the same 
as those in the New York Roman, their width being equal to their 
height. Should the student desire to lay out these letters by 
means of guide Hues other than those for the tops of the letters, 
he can proportion them in the same manner as the letters of the 
New York Roman plate, drawing such horizontal lines through 
the letters as may be necessary to locate their essential charac- 
teristics, and spacing what would be the vertical lines in the 
New York strokes at an angle of 30° from the perpendicular for 
this plate. After drawing the letters, figures, and title, the 
student will black them in, as shown, inserting the date in the 
lower left-hand corner, and the name and class letter and 
number in the lower right-hand corner. 



PLATE, TITLE: RENAISSANCE. 

1. Renaissance letters are of a great variety, the genuine 
characteristic of most of them being a lack of purity of style. The 
period of the invention of their design was about the middle of 
the 15th century, when great advancement was made in all art 
and architectural forms, and the discovery of ancient manu- 
scripts and illuminated letters, embellished with classical orna- 
ments, caused a divergence in the customs and styles in practice 
up to that time. In the capital letters of this plate are shown 
the style of Renaissance alphabet prevailing in Germany and 
its dependencies; it is known as the German Renaissance. 
The origin of the letter will be found in Italian writings, the 
Germans at this time occupying Northern Italy. The simplest 
style next to it is what is known as the French Renaissance, 
being more sober in its construction and less likely to be con- 
fusing in forming an essential part of an inscription. A pecu- 
liarity of the letter, in its German form, is the shape of a stroke 
strongly resembling the cyma, observable in many of the letters, 
but more particularly in the F^ K, M, N, S, U, and X. This 
stroke was also adopted by the French when they modified their 
alphabet according to the German style. This stroke had its 



74 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

origin in the shape of a cutlas that was used by the Germans 
at about the middle, or close, of the 15th centur}'. It is most 
conspicuous in the French Renaissance in the top strokes of E, 
F^ and iZ, although both the strokes- of the and the right fine 
line and the finish of the W and F, as well as the crossing of the 
T, and details of other letters, show the mfiuence of this charac- 
teristic. The other style of alphabet, as shown in this plate, is 
the modern adaptation of the German style or modern Renais- 
sance, and is generally known among painters and in the printing 
trades as the Bradley text. The stroke is much heavier than in 
either of the former styles, and it is generally governed by rules 
derived from other alphabets, which did not influence either the 
French or German styles. 

2. Many details show the influence of the Gothic alpha- 
bet, such as the tails of the R and K^ while the T follows 
closely on the structural lines of the Old English or German 
text; however, this alphabet for modern use is much better 
suited to all styles of plain lettering than either of the former, 
but for elaborate initial letters or illuminated manuscript, the 
style of capitals used in the German or French text, with 
an eraborate fine-line background used with the former, makes 
a highly artistic design. In the lower-case letters, only two 
alphabets are represented — the German and the Bradley text. 
The German a is readily seen to be composed of two of the 
cutlas-shaped strokes and a small cyma, while the a of the 
Bradley text combines the vertical curved stroke of the Egyptian 
letter with the cutlas stroke of the German. These points may 
be studied throughout the alphabet, and are too evident to 
require individual explanation. The letters of the Bradley 
text, in the lower case, are as follows: 2-4-5-7-9-10-12-13- 
16-17-19-21-22-24-26-27-29-30-32-33-35-37-38. The three 
letters omitted are the i and j, which are made heavier than the 
German and dotted with a ball instead of a cyma, and the lo^ 
which is but two y's joined together. In drawing this plate, 
locate the bottom line of the lower-case letters f" from the 
margin line, the lower-case letters being ^" high. The long 
strokes of the letters reach |" above or below the line, and their 



v^W^ics_i' 





JUNE 25. 1893. 

Copyright. 189!). by Thii 
All riA 



^filo^wv^ 



JOHN SMITH, CLASS N° 4529. 

nKini'er Company. 
I. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 79 

2. To draw this plate, make the line governipg the lower 
part of the body of the lower-case letters y\" above the lower 
border line; the lower-case letters are }-|" high, with a space 
of ^9^" between them. The strokes of the letters extend, in 
some cases, y%" above or below the lettering hnes, as indi- 
cated. Between the top of the lower-case letters and the bot- 
tom of the lower row of capitals leave a space of 1". Make 
the capitals 1" high, and a space of ^" between each line. 
The title is |" above the top line, and its capital letters are 
f" high, the small letters being f this size. The characteristic 
features of the alphabet consist of a number of cymas, half 
cymas, and crescent-shaped strokes. The straight strokes, 
where used, usually terminate at one or both ends with a 
spur on each side about | stroke above the bottom line. The 
letters bear approximately the same proportion of width to 
height as did the Full Block letters, with the many variations 
necessary on account of their irregular form. The stroke of 
this letter is y\", though it is not uniform in all parts, the 
crescent strokes in many of the letters being -^" wider. Where 
two cymas are adjacent, or a cyma stands near the vertical 
stroke, one of the cymas is usually made ^ stroke wide at the 
thickest part; also, where a vertical stroke curves on the inside 
of the letter, as in the C, T, and U, the vertical strode is a 
trifle less and the curved stroke is a trifle more in width than 
the full stroke. 

3. In proportioning the letter A, draw the fine line from a 
point on the lower line 2| strokes to the right of the left-hand 
border to a point 5^ strokes to the right on the top line. Then 
make the letter 5 strokes wide on the bottom line, and draw 
the fine horizontal line 2| strokes above the bottom; the heavy 
horizontal line being ^ stroke in width, is drawn the thickness 
of the fine line below. The half cyma on the bottom of the 
fine line is 2^ strokes in length, measured from its point on 
the line, and the return of its fine line after curving 2 strokes 
below is directly under the point of the letter. The letter B is 
4^ strokes in width to the outside of the cyma, exclusive of the 
spurs. The cyma, in its upper left-hand corner, is 3J strokes 



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80 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

in length, and its right-hand point is over the center of the fine 
lines on the interior of the letter. The right stroke of the B, 
where it joins the curved fine line, is thinned down to f stroke 
in width, and the tipper stroke at this point curves around sud- 
denly to form the fine line, terminating in a small ball. The 
crescent shape of the letter C is 5| strokes wide from the point 
to its left-hand side, the upper end extending 3| strokes to the 
right, and stopping over the center of the interior of the letter, 
the vertical stroke being 2f strokes long and terminating with a 
half cyma, which measures 1^ strokes on the top line. The 
fine line joining the vertical stroke of the cyma and the bevel 
on the bottom of the vertical stroke, as well as all the diagonal 
lines at the ends of the letters in this alphabet, except as other- 
wise pointed out, inclines at an angle of 30°, but the line is not 
straight and always curves toward the interior of the letter. 
The letter D is 5J strokes in width to the outside of the spur of 
the cyma. The right vertical stroke and the top horizontal 
stroke are joined together at the angle by a sharp curve. The 
two fine lines in the center of the letter are |- stroke apart and 

1 stroke from the cyma. The letter E is composed entirely of 
cymas and half cymas. The space between the fine line and 
the first cyma of the letter is 1 stroke, between the fine line 
and the second cyma is ^ stroke, and between the right-hand 
fine line and the projecting end of the top of the letter is 

2 strokes, which is directly over the half cyma on the bottom 
of the line, exclusive of fine-line projection; the middle half 
cyma projects from the fine line If strokes. The F is drawn 
similar to the B, except that its middle stroke is finished like 
the E and its top stroke like the C. The G also resembles 
the C strongly, being precisely the same as that letter, with the 
exception of the right stroke, which is carried around and 
finished, as shown, coming to a point 3 strokes above the lower 
line; the lower corresponding point is 1 stroke above. 

4. From the vertical stroke of the letter H to its fine line 
is If strokes, from the vertical stroke to the cyma is 2 strokes, 
and from the vertical line to the outside of the second cyma, 
exclusive of the spurs, is 3J strokes. • The horizontal line of 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 81 

the H is ^ stroke in width, and its top is 2 strokes from the 
top line. The letters I and J are similar to E in their upright 
cymas, the difference being in the position of the heavy and 
light cymas, which are reversed. These letters, as the H, 
terminate on the top line where they are joined to the fine lines. 
The single fine line on the letter J is ^ stroke to the right 
of the main cyma, which terminates in a heavy cyma at the 
bottom of the letter. The letter K is developed from the 
letter /, the slanting fine line leaving the vertical fine line of 
the letter at a point 2 strokes above the lower line, and inter- 
secting the top line at a point 2f strokes to the right of the 
fine line. The lower heavy stroke intersects the fine line at a 
point 1 stroke from the first double fine line. The letter L is 
similar to the letter E, with the middle stroke left out and with 
the vertical cymas reversed, the heavy one being to the right. 
The left part of the letter M is similar to the letter /, and 
its middle and right portions consist of two vertical strokes, 
separated by a space of 1|- strokes and 1^ strokes from the 
heavy cyma. The fine lines within the letter are | stroke apart 
and ^ stroke away from the vertical cyma. 

5. The letter N is 3f strokes wide between its fine lines, 
the slanting stroke intersecting with the left fine line 1 stroke 
below the top. The letters and Q are identical in every part, 
except as regards the tail of the latter. The left crescent- 
shaped stroke forms a semiellipse on its inside, and its outside 
is 3 strokes from the nearest inside fine line. The other side of 
the letter extends 2^ strokes beyond this fine line, and the 
inside vertical stroke is midway between the fine line and 
the crescent stroke of the letter. The letter P is similar in con- 
struction to the letter L, its main cyma being carried nearly to 
the top line and its right stroke carried ^ stroke above the line 
and to the right suflflciently to make the letter 4f strokes wide. 
The vertical fine line of the letter falls from the point of inter- 
section of the cyma and the right stroke. The left half of 
the R is similar to the I, though a trifle shorter; the upper 
right stroke is similar to that of the B, though care must be 
used to keep the tail of this letter vertical and not confuse it 



82 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

with the slanting stroke of the /v, although they may appear 
somewhat similar. In drawing S, the point at the lower 
portion of the letter, whore the half cyma joins the fine line 
from the full cyma ahove, is exactly midway hetween the 
convex curves of the C3Mnas forming the body of the letter. 
The half cyma extends 3^ strokes to the left of this point. The 
right cyma extends 2^ strokes to the right of this point, and its 
greatest convexity is 2^ strokes above the bottom line. The 
left cyma reaches its greatest convexity Ih strokes below the top 
line. The space between the cymas is J stroke, the right one 
being a trifle less and the left one a trifle more than J stroke in 
width. The cyma at the top of the letter 7' is 5 strokes long; 
the inside vertical fine line is 1.} strokes from its right-hand 
end. The inside vertical stroke is f stroke from the fine 
line and also 1 stroke from the crescent-shaped curve that 
forms the body of the letter, the right finish of this curve being 
directly under the end of the horizontal cyma at the top, 

6. The crescent spur at the end of the letter U is somewhat 
distorted in shape, in order to admit the insertion of the interior 
stroke, which is 3 strokes long and | stroke from the crescent. 
The letter is iinished on the right side with a vertical stroke, as 
shown, the entire width of the letter being 4| strokes. The 
vertical strokes of tlie V make the letter 2 strokes wide inside, 
the point on the top line of the letter biding on a line with the 
inside of the right vertical stroke. The extreme right and 
the extreme left strokes of the W are but slight modifications of 
the right and left strokes of the V. The middle stroke, how- 
ever, is a plain straight stroke terminating as shown. In the 
letter A" the space between the diagonal stroke and diagonal fine 
line, if both were carried through to the lettering lines, would 
be 2f strokes on the top and 3§ strokes on the bottom. The 
intersection of the stroke and fine line is J| strokes below 
the top and 2f strokes above the bottom. The cross-bar of the 
Xis 3^ strokes long. The intersection of the fine line and ver- 
tical stroke of the F is 3 strokes above the bottom line, and the 
width of the letter on the top line, if the fine line were carried 
through, would be 4 strokes, the vertical stroke being in the 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 83 

center of this width. The strokes of the Z are modifications of 
similar strokes existing in the »S^, the half cyma at the bottom 
being 4^ strokes long in the bottom line; the diagonal cyma 
being drawn to finish with the former almost tangent at a point 
Ih strokes from its left-hand end. The cyma on the top line 
does not reach to the left limits of the letter within 1 stroke, 
but is 3 strokes long, as it stops to the right side within J a 
stroke of a vertical line drawn through the center of the ball 
and the end of the lower half cyma. The diagonal strokes of 
the character <£• incline at an angle of about 35°, the two 
upper strokes being 1 stroke apart, and the two lower strokes, 
Ih strokes apart. The diagonal strokes can be gauged by the 
eye and the character drawn in, as shown. 

7. In drawing the lower-case letters, the interior space of all 
the enclosed letters is 2 strokes; the strokes of the small letters 
are ^" in width. In designing the small letters, draw all the 
vertical strokes first; then the diagonal fine lines that form 
the enclosures at the top and bottom of the letter are drawn 
at an angle of 30°. The spurs at the tops and bottoms of 
the vertical strokes are similar to those on the large letters and 
on the long strokes extending above or below the line. These 
spurs project | stroke to the right and left of all the vertical 
strokes, finishing on the top and bottom lines, with tlie excep- 
tion of the right-hand strokes of the vi and n, which terminate 
with a curve. The vertical stroke of the ;' is carried 2 J strokes 
below the line and is beveled off to the left in a curved stroke at 
an angle of .60° and terminates in a short and abrupt semi- 
cyma. A little study of this alphabet will show that there is a 
great similarity in the construction of all the letters of the 
lower-case alphabet. It is essentially a straight-line alphabet, 
there being only sufficient curved strokes to emphasize the 
characteristics of certain given letters. 

8. The student in drawing this plate will have to give 
particular attention to the proportioning of the spacing of the 
letters on the plate, as well as to the drawing of the letters 
themselves. Owing to their irregularity in outline, no definite 
rules can be given as to the location of each individual letter, 



84 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

and as the alphabet is a difhcult one and likely to require con- 
siderable practice before it can be satisfactorily done, it will be 
best for the student to draw each individual letter on a separate 
piece of })aper until he is familiar with it, and then redraw 
it carefully after its proper spacing has been located on the 
drawing paper. The first line of letters once properly spaced, 
the second line and third line can be located according to 
the relative position of their letters with those of the line above. 
It is not required that the student shall maintain exactly the 
same })roportion and si)acing as is given in the original plate, but 
whatever spacing he adopts must be uniform, so that the letters 
will not appear crowded in one part of the sheet nor spread apart 
in another, and that the spacing between the two ends of each 
line of letters and the vertical !)order lines shall be uniform. 

After drawing the plate, insert the title at the top, put the 
date in the left-hand corner and the name and class letter and 
number in the lower right-hand corner. 



PI.ATE, TITLE: ENGROSSING. 

1. This style of letter, generally referred to as German 
Roundhand, is usually executed with a writing pen, designed 
specifically for this i)urpose. It is more of a pen alphabet than 
a brush alphabet, and but rarely enters into any of the work 
required by the sign painter or general letterer. It is largely 
used for the body of the information contained in engrossed 
resolutions or conventional forms, and before the invention of 
the typewriter was the letter exclusively used for engrossing 
wills, deeds, and other legal documents. Although the student 
will, in executing this plate, draw the letters in outline and fill 
in the strokes with a brush, it is advisable that he should under- 
stand the characteristics of the construction of the letter in order 
that he may better proportion the stroke itself and its diminu- 
tion to the fine line. The pens used by the draftsman to do 
this work are of two forms — one with a plain, Hat point like an 
ordinary stub pen, and the other style shown in the figure, 
with which the shaded-letter al{)habet is drawn. The latter 
style possesses a double point, which at one stroke draws both a 



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§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 85 

heavy stroke and a fine line, as in the open outlined letters and 
the shaded ones on the plate. The form of these pens is not 
unlike an ordinary stub, and is held in the hand, almost per- 
pendicularly with the breadth of its point, at an angle of about 
45°. The position of the point of the pen is not changed in 
forming any of the letters, the direction of its movement deter- 
mining entirely the width of each stroke, and the points of its 
taper or diminution to the fine line. In the letter A, for 
instance, the pen is set in position to draw the interior crescent 
stroke to the left of the vertical stroke of the A. The pen is then 
moved to the left of this crescent, and the upper crescent is drawn 
so that the terminals of each come together. The lower crescent 



of the A is then drawn as a continuation of the second one, 
thereby forming a curve somewhat like the letter C. The pen 
is again placed in position at the top of the second crescent, 
drawn vertically downward within 1 stroke of the bottom line, 
and then in a slanting direction to the right, until it touches the 
bottom line, and then in the direction of the inclination of the 
point, upward, making the terminal fine line. This operation, 
in varying forms, is repeated with every letter of the alphabet. 
Where the scroll curve occurs in any letter, each crescent or line 
of the curve is drawn separately, and terminated so that the fine 
end of one joins on to the fine end of another, except in the 
letter C, where at the top these lines are permitted to pass each 
other. 

2. When the letterer desires to use this alphabet on a large 
scale, he usually outlines the letter, thickening the stroke and 
tapering it to a fine line in such places as would naturally occur 
if he were using a pen. The letters have no absolute propor- 
tions of width; they are based, in general, upon the Script 
alphabet, with a slight tendency toward the eccentricities of the 
German Text; but with sufficient latitude to enable the letterer 



86 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

to vary considerably in establishing i)roi)()rtions, without seri- 
ously impairing the .symmetry and smoothness of the api)ear- 
ance of the work. In designing this plate, the student will 
locate the bottom of the lowest line of letters ]^" above the lower 
border line. Make this line of letters yV ^ig^' ^'^^^ leave 
f " space between it and the line of shaded capitals. The top 
capital letters and numerals are J" high, and the space between 
the shaded capitals and the outlined letters above them is 
^", while between the outlined capitals and the lower-case letters 
in black above them, is i^^". The lower-case letters are f " high 
and the space from them to the capitals is J". The two upper 
lines of capitals and numerals are ^" apart, and the title is 
^" high and y\" above the top line of letters. 

3. In drawing these letters on the plate, the student will use 
his freehand pen entirely, outlining the letters, and comj)leting 
the plate in outline before he starts to shade or blacken in any of 
the characters. The upper alphabets of capitals and lower-case 
letters may then be blacked in. One-half of the second alphabet, 
and all of its lower-case letters may then be shaded, as shown 
on the plate, and the second half shaded and tinted with hori- 
zontal freehand lines, drawn about ^y apart. Should the 
student so desire, he may draw the letters with an engrossing 
or round writing pen, after he has had sufficient practice with 
this instrument on a separate sheet of paper. The width of the 
pen at the point should be ^" for the capital letters, and jV" for 
the small letters. This, when inclined at the angle of 45°, will 
give a stroke somewhat narrower than either of these measure- 
ments, which is the proper stroke, as shown on the plate. The 
main thing to be observed in letters of this plate is their char- 
acteristics, due entirely to the position of the pen, and the direc- 
tion of its movement in their execution. The general proportion 
of each letter is more or less dependent on this; the amount of 
curve and the direction to be given each stroke will be determined 
by the position of the pen and the direction of the stroke. 

After completing the pages shown, the student will insert the 
date in the lower left-hand corner and his name and class letter 
and number in the lower right-hand corner. 




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■ved. 



2962 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 87 



PLATE, TITIiE: ARCHITECTS' PEI^ STROKE. 

1. This plate exhibits three forms of the Pen Stroke alphabet 
and their corresponding lower case, used under varying circum- 
stances, but almost exclusively for architectural drawings. The 
letter is constructed so that it may be easily drawn without the 
use of any instrument save an ordinary pen or a drafting pen. 
The letters should be made perfectly clear and legible, express- 
ing its words without study necessary on the part of the 
observer. The letters are free from any conventional propor- 
tion, there being no rule for stroke or width of letter other than 
those prescribed, according to the circumstances of each case. 
The stroke should usually be made heavier when drawn on 
tracing cloth, in order to produce a clear print, but in the 
lettering of the details of a paper drawing the stroke can be 
as fine as the draftsman may desire. The general proportions 
for the letters in alphabet No. 1 require that their width shall 
be f their height, while the width of alphabet No. 2 is equal to 
the height. In alphabet No. 3 the letters vary, the main pur- 
pose being to produce a letter by the use of the triangle and 
T square that can be completed in straight lines without 
freehand additions. 

2. In drawing this plate, the lower-case letters of the 
alphabet at the bottom are ^" above the lower margin line. 
The letters are -^^" high, and the long letters extend f^" above 
and \" below the lines. The bottom line of capitals correspond- 
ing to this lower case is If" from the margin line. The letters 
are ^" high. The lower-case letters of alphabet No. 2 are 1" 
above these capitals, and are the same height, and extend the 
same distance above and below the line as do the other lower- 
case letters. From the second line of capitals to the lower-case 
letters of alphabet No. 1 is 1", with a space of 1" between 
them and the capitals, and a space of ^" to the title, the 
capitals of which are f" high. The capitals and the small 
letters, alphabets No. 1 and No. 2, are the same height as those 
in the lower alphabet. The inclination of the letters in alphabet 
No. 1 is 30°. 



THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 



3. The strokes of the letters are frequently projected beyond 
the limits of the normal letter, either as a scroll, such as occurs in 
the C and E, or as a compound curve, observed in the G and R. 
Wherever the scroll occurs, the end should be finished with a 
dot. The regular straight strokes of the letter are usually 
finished with a spur in the form of a short, straight line, which 
crosses the stroke at about an angle of 30° with the horizontal 
line. In some cases the stroke of one letter is carried over to 
interfere with another, as may be observed in the tail of the Q, 
the middle stroke of the R, etc. 

4. Occasionally, the initial letter will be extended to cover 
over or extend under an entire word, as shown in the figure, but 
in the use of any such eccentricities, legibility, the chief object of 
the letter, must never be overlooked. While these conditions 




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apply to all the alphabets, it is more particularly to No. 1 on 
this plate that we refer. Alphabet No. 2 is a modified form of 
the French Roman, without any distinction between the stroke 
and fine line. The spur should be very small, the tendency of 
the draftsman usually being to make it excessive. There are no 
spurs in the lower-case alphabet. Alphabet No. 3 is made 
entirely with the T square and the triangle, and requires no 
freehand penciling before laying it out. 

5. The upper and lower lines confining the letters should 
be drawn first, the letter A located in its proper place and 
drawn in ink, and then, after approximately spacing the dis- 
tances, the vertical lines of the letters 5, C, D, £", etc. should 
be drawn in ink without further instructions. 



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JO/y/V 5M/TH, CLASS N9 4-529. 



nfcineer Company, 
i. 



§3 THE FORMATION OP LETTERS. 89 

When this plate is finished, make a careful comparison of each 
letter of your own plate with that of the copy, and endeavor to 
criticize and detect for yourself any irregularity or error that may 
exist. If this error is in the proportioning of the letter, correct 
it before your plate is sent in for correction ; if it is simply an 
error of location or spacing, let it stand, and, unless very serious, 
it will not be counted. 

When satisfied that every detail is up to the standard, insert 
the date in the lower left-hand corner, and the name and class 
letter and number in the lower right-hand corner. 



PLATE, TITLE: DRAFTSMEN'S STTLES. 

1, Many topographical and mechanical draftsmen, as well 
as civil and mechanical engineers, contend that the style and 
quality of lettering on a map, survey, or drawing is of little 
importance so long as it expresses what is intended in the parts 
referred to. With some there is a feeling that extensive let- 
tering, or even careful and accurate lettering of a map or draw- 
ing, is time wasted, and that the real effort of their work should 
end with the finishing of the drawing itself. That this is a 
grievous and serious mistake for any finished draftsman needs 
no further proof than the fact that the government of the United 
States has recognized the importance of accuracy in map lettering 
to such an extent as to establish certain rules that shall govern 
the lettering of each individual part of a map, using a certain 
sized letter for certain objects or localities of importance, 
and larger and smaller letters for localities of greater or less 
importance. Each style of the letter is used uniformly, to indi- 
cate the character of the surface or division of the country 
lettered. For instance, all waterways, lakes, etc. are lettered in 
various sizes of Italic letter; railroads and engineering improve- 
ments are lettered in an inclined block letter; cities are lettered 
in Roman capitals; smaller towns in capitals and lower-case 
letters; etc. All of the principal letters used in this work, 
as well as several other styles, are given in this course of instruc- 
tion for draftsmen, but their specific application is a matter of 
separate study and does not form a part of this Course. 



90 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

2. In drawing this plate of letters, draw the bottom line 
of numerals ^V" ^^'f^^' '^^^'^ resting on the lower border line. 
Between this and the letters above is a space of ^", and the 
letters themselves are yV' l^igh- 'I'he lower alphabet of lower- 
case letters is y\" below the capital letters of that al[)habet, or 
about ^" above the' bottom line, and f^" high. 

The line of letters numbered 6 is f" above the line numbered 
7, the lower case of alphabet No. 5, to the left, being /',;" high 
in the bod}^ of the letters, and the alphabet to tiie right, ^y 
high. From the top of the former to the letters in No. 5 is ^", 
and the letters are j\" high. Above this, a distance of f", the 
heavy line containing the last eight letters of the alphabet is |-" 
high, and all the heavy lines above this are spaced ^" apart and 
^" high. The four letters in lines 3 and 4 are yV' l^elow the 
line immediately above them, while the small lines of letters 
numbered 8 and 9 are each ^" high, and located with their 
small letters in the center of the space occupied by the alphabet 
immediately to the left. The panel containing the title, the 
length of which is 5", is V' wide and I" above the top line of 
letters. The height of the letters in the panel is ][", the stroke 
is ^ their height, and the white outlined border is 1 stroke in 
width. Beginning with the top line of letters, the stroke of 
which is 1^ the height, the student may locate the center of the 
top of the A 3 strokes from the left border line. The letters of 
this alphabet are all t5 strokes in width, except the L, which is 
only 4h strokes; the j)/, which is strokes; and the IF, which 
is 7 strokes in width. It will bo oI)served that this ali)habet is 
very similar in many of its details to the Half Block alphabet 
drawn on the second plate, but with two exceptions; one, that 
the width of the letter is equal to its height, and the other, that 
the letters with beveled corners do not possess that bevel on the 
inside of the stroke. The former of tliese exceptions may be 
varied according to the conditions in which the lettering is to 
be done. Certain drawings may require that the letters shall he 
elongated or condensed, thus destroying the jiroportion of Avidth 
to height; but the condition regarding the bevel existing on 
the outside of the letter only, should never be altered, as 
omitting the bevel on the inside of small letters contributes 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 91 

to the sharpness and clearness of the outline, as may be seen 
in the letters of the title. 

3. Alphabet No. 2 shows an alphabet, or at least a por- 
tion of it, the proportions and general outlines of which are 
similar to No. 1, with the addition of the spur, as in the Antique 
Half Block plate. The student should experience no difficulty 
in executing this alphabet, should he so desire, in any of his 
work, as the general principles of the letters are precisely the 
same as in alphabet No. 1. In designing the other letters, no 
spur should be placed on the left extremity of the J nor on the 
tail of the i2, and the small spur that exists on some letters 
where the bevel stroke intersects with the vertical stroke should 
never exceed in size J the regular spur. No spurs on any of 
the letters should project above the line, except on the letters 
C, G, and *S'. Alphabet No. 3 is a repetition of the Egyptian 
letter already drawn in that plate, excepting in the letters 
having rounded strokes. The and Q in this alphabet are 
perfect circles, while the strokes of the other rounded letters 
are all elliptical curves. The letters are somewhat similar in 
many respects to alphabet No. 1, the left extremity of the J, 
however, extending higher above the lower line, and the 
rounded letters, such as the C, G, 0, etc., having their convex 
edges a little above and a little below the lettering line. This 
protuberance of the letter is only noticeable when horizontal 
lines are drawn limiting the top and bottom; but if it is not 
done, these letters will appear shorter than the others when a 
line of lettering exists alone. Alphabet No. 4 is similar to 
the Antique Egyptian plate, and in this is embodied some 
features referred to in the previous alphabet. The spur is 
added precisely as in alphabet No. 2, excepting in the letters 
C and E, all letters of a similar character partaking of the 
same .peculiarity. 

4. Alphabet No. 5 is one of the most important alphabets 
the draftsman is required to be familiar with. This style of 
letter is used in descriptive matter on all classes of drawings. 
It is a single pen-stroke letter drawn rapidly, freehand, and 
when executed at a uniform angle and properly spaced, presents 



92 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

a line of very neat work. The principles on which these letters 
are constructed are shown in the oval of Fig. 2, and the char- 
acteristic curve by which such letters as the m and u are joined, 
is shown in Fig. 3. The angle of these letters is three parts 
base to eight of height, as shown in Fig. 1. The round letters 
of the lower case, which are shown to the left of alphabet No. 6, 
are not elliptical, but oval, and students should practice that 
curve repeatedly before executing the plate. If the capitals of 
alphabet No. 5 are drawn perpendicular, instead of at the 
angle shown in Fig. 1, then the lower-case letters shown to the 
right of those belonging to alphabet No. 5 will be used. These 
lower-case letters, alphabet No. 6, are elongated, and made to 
fill a space often occurring in drawings, which is too narrow for 
the regular proportion, as shown in the line above. When this 





/ 




Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 

style is used, the capitals and long letters of the lower alphabet 
should be twice the height of the small letters of the lower 
alphabet. 

5. Alphabet No. 7 is an engrossing alphabet, or, as it is 
sometimes called, Round Writing, and is made with a shading 
pen especially designed for this writing, and used with ordinary 
writing fluid or India ink. The angle of the up stroke, or fine 
line, of the pen should be about 45°; the heavy strokes should 
always be made with a downward movement of the pen, and 
the fine lines either united or, as in the R and S, terminated 
with a slight space between the points. The letters in No. 8 
are backhand pen-stroke letters, as indicated, and are used for 
similar purposes with alphabet No. 5, and can be executed with 
great rapidity where time in the lettering of a drawing is of 
importance. This letter must always be of uniform angle and 
somewhat condensed. 



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jUiery Engineer Company, 
s reserved. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 93 

6. The shaded Italic Script shown in No. 9 is a letter in 
general use for important lettering of drawings, such as titles, 
etc., where it is especially beneficial in giving a variet}' and 
thereby improving the appearance of the drawing. The title of 
the drawing shows the letter treated in a different manner, but 
proportioned precisely the same as the other letters in alphabet 
No. 1. The letter is carefully outlined, as in the previous 
cases, and then the background is blacked in, leaving the letter 
in relief instead of blacking the letter itself. The shaded 
strokes of alphabet No. 7 and letters in No. 9 may either be 
outlined with a fine pen and blacked in subsequently, or they 
may be made with a single stroke of the fine soft pen, the 
strength of the line being altered by the pressure, or in the 
case of alphabet No. 7, with a round writing pen previously 
described. The student should execute the plate as shown, 
paying particular attention to the spacing and proportioning of 
each of the strokes in each of the letters. There is nothing in 
this plate that is essentially new, but there is much in the 
arrangement, location, and proportioning of details that will 
test the attention he has given to, and the knowledge he has 
derived from, the work on previous plates. 

After the plate is completed the student will insert the 
date in the lower left-hand corner, and the name and class 
letter and number in the lower right-hand corner, as usual. 



PliATE, TITLE: HEBREW. 

1, This alphabet, though not considered until nearly the 
end of this Course, is, in point of chronology, the earliest form 
of letter with which we have so far had to deal. It is not the 
intention here to instruct the student as to the sound represented 
or the names given to the different characters, but to familiarize 
him with the forms and principles that govern the different 
letters, so that he can execute the same from a rough copy, 
when required to design an inscription for the stone cutter, 
marble worker, metal worker, or the engrosser. 

2. In executing this plate, locate the lower lettering line yg" 
above the lower margin, which gives the bottom of M only. 



94 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

Make these letters 1^' high throughout the alphabet, with a 
space of I" between the two lower lines, and f" between 
the upper lines. The title is |" high, the word "Final," y'g". 
The average width of the stroke of these letters is about \", and 
the fine line about y\". The English characters, for which the 
letters stand, are marked by the side of them, and the follow- 
ing names in their regular order will enable the student to 
discern which ones we refer to in the subsequent descriptions: 
Aleph, Beth, Gimel, Daleth, He, Vav, Zayin, Cheth, Teth, Yod, 
Kaph, Lamed, Mem, Nun, Samech, Ayin, Pe, Tsaddik, Koph, 
Resh, Shin, Tav. The final letters are Kaph, Mem, Nun, 
Phe, and Tsaddik. 

3. Some of these letters resemble each other so closely that 
the closest attention is necessary, in order to distinguish the 
characteristic points. The cyma, which is the main stroke of 
the first letter Aleph, is more pronounced in this than in some 
other Hebrew alphabets, thus showing that there is opportunity 
for variation in this detail. The lower stroke of the second 
letter, corresponding with B, extends to the right of the fine line 
■| stroke, while in the next letter, G, it is but 1|- strokes in length, 
and does not quite reach the fine line. The character corre- 
sponding to D and that corresponding to R are very similar, 
the distinguishing characteristic being that the former is carried 
almost to a point at its upper right-hand side, while the latter 
curves off to the fine line. The vertical stroke of the H does 
not reach to the cyma at the top of the letter. The letter Y is 
cut off short, finishing 2 strokes above the bottoms of the other 
letters. The dot inside the letters B, K, T, etc. must never be 
omitted, as the letter will not then possess its j^roper value. In 
the character corresponding with M, a space of \ stroke is left 
between the fine line and the bottom horizontal stroke. The 
quiescent Ayin somewhat resembles the letter ]', and the tail of 
the letter extends from the bottom line, at an angle of about 60°, 
to a point vertically under the top. The short stroke of the P 
is finished \ stroke above the horizontal stroke, with a short fine- 
line spur toward the left. The dot of the letter rests upon what 
is really the lettering line, which extends practically through 



UNCI At 



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JOHN 5M/T/i, CLASS N^ 4529. 

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irved. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 95 

the center of the letters, a characteristic in which this alphabet 
differs from all others. 

4. The student in forming these letters will pay particular 
attention to the proportion of each, according to the width of 
its stroke. Notice the position of the cyma, with regard to the 
lettering lines, between which the characters are drawn, and 
also the location of other details, with respect to the horizontal 
lines, on which the script letters rest and below which the 
Hebrew letters, in nearly every case, extend. Note the combi- 
nation of similar details existing in different letters, as was the 
case in the Old EngHsh and German Text alphabets; the T, for 
instance, possessing, as its right stroke, the same character as 
stands for the letter i?, the upper stroke of the i?, and the right 
stroke of the final F. Note also that in general appearance the 
letters T, M, S, P, and final 31 are very much alike, but when 
analyzed, as to the shape and proportion of their strokes, are 
entirely different. On the other hand, observe that the character 
standing for Ts in the middle of a word is totally different 
from the character standing for the same letters at the end of 
a word. The only difference in the characters standing for 
S and Sh is the position of the dot. 

The student will lay out this plate in outline as in the pre- 
vious ones, black in the letters with a brush, and print in the 
title in a Roman letter f' above the top line of the Hebrew 
letters. The word ''Final" over the last line of Hebrew letters 
is Ye" above i;hem. 

After the completion of the plate, write the date in the lower 
left-hand corner and the name and the class letter and number 
in the lower right-hand corner. 



PI.ATE, TITI^E: UNCIAL GREEK. 

1. The Uncial Greek alphabet is distinguished from the 
alphabet of minuscules in the same sense that capitals are dis- 
tinguished from lower-case Tetters in the Roman alphabet. The 
minuscules, however, are not always used in the exact relation 
of lower-case letters to the Uncial Greek, nor are the latter used 
entirely as capitals. The uncial letter is always used at the 



96 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 



l)('j:;inniiij;" ol" proper iiniiics and the lirst word of a sentence, 
whether the whole sentence ia written in this style of letter 
or not. 

li. In designing this plate, draw the line limiting the hottom 
of (he letters ^" from (lie lower border line. The minuscules are 
then made f" in luiight, with a space of jj" between them. 
From the top of the minuscules to the bottom of the uncial 
letters, a space of 1" is left. The uncial letters are 1" high, 
witli a -V" space between them, and the title is ^" high and ^" 
abov(^ the top line. 

;>. 'I'luMc are but 24 letters in tlie (Ircek alphabet, and as 
their forms are in man_y res{)ects dilferent from the Roman 
letters, it is well that the student should know them by name in 
their regular order, that i)roper comparisons with them and 
other alphabets can hereafter be made. 

The names are as follows: Alpha., Bltd, Gaimna, Delta, 
Epsilon, Z<ia, Ma, T/irta, lota, Kappa, Lambda, Mu, Nn, Xi, 
Omicron, Pi, Bho, Sigma, Tau, l)Mllon, Phi, Clu, Psi, Omega. 

The stroke in this letter is a trifle less than ^" wide; the 
general width of tlie letter is about 4 strokes, excepting roimd 
or extended letters, wiiich are wider and can only be judgi'd by 
their relative ])roportions. The average width of the minus- 
euli's is ,"•',;", and their form can best be rei)rodueed by drawing 
the lettering lini's at the to}) and bottom of the letters on the 
])late, and judging the proportion of the (Jreek letter in the copy 
as it projects above or below this line. 

4. The letters Alpha and Hcta are similar to the Roman 
characters A and B, with the exception of the spur, which is 
4i stroke in liMigth and but rj- stroke in width where it joins the 
letter. There is no letter C, and the Gamma (G) is similar to 
an inverted L. The J)dta (/>) and Lambda (fj) are similar in 
outline to the Alpha, except that the former has a horizontal 
stroke and the latter possesses no horizontal fine lino. Epsilon 
is similar to tin; Roman letter E, and Zeta corresponds with the 
Ronuin letter Z. The Ela is very similar to the Roman letter i/, 
but is the character used in the Greek for the long sound of the 
letter E. The Thcia {Th) is similar in outline to the Omiavn 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 97 

(0), except that it has a cross-bar in the middle, which is 
I stroke wide and reaches to within ^ stroke of the curved 
outline. The Iota and Kappa are similar to, and corre- 
spond with, the Roman letters / and K. There is no letter / 
in the Greek alphabet. Lambda, the equivalent of the Greek 
letter L, is similar to an inverted V, or an A without the hori- 
zontal fine line; and Afii and A% correspond with, and are 
similar to, the Roman letters M and N. Xi, corresponding 
somewhat to the letter Z, is drawn with three horizontal strokes, 
the intermediate one being 1 stroke shorter on each end than the 
two outside strokes. Omicron, as said before, is similar to the 
letter of the Roman alphabet. Pi is similar to the Eta, or 
the letter //, without the horizontal fine line. Eho, the Greek 
letter R, is identical with the Roman letter P, except as to the 
spurs. Sigma, the Greek letter S, is unlike, in its general 
appearance, anything in the Roman alphabet, but its slanting 
stroke and fine line are the same inclination as those of the X. 
Tau is similar to the Roman T. In the Greek, Upsilon is the 
character that stands for the Roman letter F, to which it is 
closely related in outline. Phi, Chi, Psi, and Omega, the last 
four letters of the Greek alphabet, correspond to Ph, Ch, Ps, 
and the long sound of 0, respectively. The Phi is similar to a 
letter /passed through a low, broad eclipse; the Chi is similar to 
the Roman X. The Pd is a character entirely different from 
anything we have heretofore met, but its middle stroke is the 
same as the middle stroke of the Phi. The Omega in its upper 
half is similar to the 0, but its lower portion is finished with 
horizontal strokes and spurs, as shown. 

5. Among the minuscules there is less resemblance to the 
Roman characters than we find in the uncial letters, and many 
letters that bear a resemblance to certain Roman characters do 
not correspond with those characters in sound. The Sigma is 
very similar to the Omicron, and closely resembles an inverted Q, 
totally different from the same character in the uncial alphabet, 
or to the letter S in the Roman alphabet, for which it stands. 
Upsilon closely resembles an italic /•, while Omega is not greatly 
different from a w, and these characters themselves are entirely 



OS THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. ^3 

(litTiMciit from those of the same name in (he \ineial alphabet. 
The U'tters lieta, Delta, Zda, Theta, La)nb(ht, Phi, and IVi extend 
their hnes about ^ their height above the Hue. The letters Beta 
and Clii extend J stroke below the line, while Gamma, Mii, Phi, 
and Psi extend ^ their height below the line. 

(y. It is not necessary that the student should remember the 
details of the shape of each of these letters, but he should be 
able to proportion them, when called upon, according to the 
rules laid down, and should also know when and where to 
applj' the uncial letter or the minuscule. 

The upper and lower lines confining the letters should be 
drawn lirst, the letter A located in its proper place and drawn 
in ink, and then, after approximately spacing the distances, 
the vertical lines of the letters B, G; D, E, etc. should be drawn 
in ink, without further instructions. After this plate is linished, 
make a careful comparison of each letter of your own plate 
with that of the copy, and endeavor to criticize and detect for 
yourself auy irregularity or error that may exist. If this error 
is in the proportioning of the letter, correct it before your plate 
is sent in to the Schools for correction; if it is merely an error of 
location or spacing, let it stand, unless very serious, and it will 
not be counted. 

^^'hen satisfied that every detail is uj^ to the standard, insert 
the date in the lower left-hand corner and the name and class 
letter and number in the lower right-hand corner. 



PLATE, TITIiE: HENRY VII. 

1. This style of letter dates back to the beginning of the 
16th century, and takes its name from the Chapel in Westmin- 
ster Abbey, London, which was built for King Henry VII, and 
in which his dust now lies. The letter was designed to conform 
to the style of architecture prevailing at that time, and was 
used for carvings and inscriptions throughout the Chapel. Its 
modern use is associated more with engrossing and ecclesiastical 
work; it is never used for carving in stone, though it is espe- 
cially applicable for designs in pyrography, or etching on cork, 
leather, bone, and ivory. 






MB CO 

<2i Jt 

HOFO 

veil 

c/^/V/f 25, /a93. 

Copyright, ISiiH. f>y Ti 
Allr 






;:iiM 

RSTU 

JOHN 5M/TH, CLASS /V9 4529. 

rry Engineer Company, 
served. 



§ 3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 99 

2. The letters of this plate are divided into four lines, each 
1^" high and spaced |" apart, and the lower line but yV above 
the lower border. The title is yV' ^'^8^ ^^^ ft" above the top 
line of letters. The average width of these letters is 1^", a char- 
acteristic that did not exist in the original designs in Westminster 
Abbe3\ A peculiarit}'^ of Gothic art and architecture was that 
not the slightest attention was ever given to symmetry or 
uniformity in detail, and consequently the lettering at the 
close of this period is singularly marked with irregular eccen- 
tricities. Modern taste, however, demands a certain amount 
of decorous uniformity, and these letters have been modernized 
to that extent, in order to make a serviceable alphabet. 

3. The letters 31 and W are 1^" and 2" wide, respectively, 
B, C, E, and F are 1^" wide, and the letter L is 1^" wide over 
all. The round strokes at their maximum thickness are f", and 
the fine lirie is j\r". The dots at the ends of the stroke are 
j;" in diameter, as are also the circular white openings at the 
point where the stroke reaches its maximum w^idth. The balls 
used in the center of the concave strokes are ^" in diameter; the 
only case where one of these ball forms is used at the end of a 
stroke is in the letter U, this detail being there but yV in 
diameter. In the middle of the letters A, B, and M a floral 
device is used, varying somewhat in the different letters, but 
all based upon the trefoil, or fleur-de-lis, ornament character- 
istic of the period. It will be observed that a short, flat spur 
projects each side of the white disks or balls entering into the 
broadest parts of the strokes. The straight lines, or beveled 
ends, of these spurs are drawn from a point in the center of the 
white disk. 

4. This alphabet naturally has wide exceptions from the 
general rules laid down for the conventional alphabets here- 
tofore described to the student. These eccentricities are per- 
mitted simply because the letter had its origin in a class of 
work where the information conveyed to the reader was second- 
ary to the ornament of the letter itself. For instance, the 
title, "Henry VII," carved elaborately on a tablet, was put 
there to ornament that tablet, and the information that it is the 



100 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

name of the dead king is secondary, because the observer has 
time to decipher its meaning from the beauty of the detail. 
The letters Z), 0, and Q are precisely alike in this alphabet, 
with the exceptions of the tail added to the bottom of the Q 
and the ball at the top of its fine line, and the tail added to 
the top of the D. The vertical strokes of all letters that possess 
such are identical, and the middle strokes of the letters F and 
H are made thicker than the fine lines. 

5. In drawing this plate, the student will first outline the 
letters in pencil, omitting all attempts at ornamentation, and 
rounding the curves as evenly as possible to their joints with 
the stroke and fine line, in the same manner as if he were 
laying out a medieval alphabet. The balls, hollows, foliated 
work, and other ornamentation can then be added, and when 
all is in place the plate may be inked. In inking the plate, it 
is advisable to ink in all the balls and ornamental work first, 
and draw the plain and simpler parts of the letters afterward, 
as it is much easier to connect straight or evenly curved lines 
to a detail than it is to plant this detail upon the lines in 
question. 

After the plate is complete and blacked in, the student will 
insert the date in the lower left-hand corner, and the name and 
class letter and number in the loAver right-hand corner. 



PLATE, TITLE: IGTII CE:N^TITRY. 

1 , This plate shows a letter of a modified form of the style 
used for general work during the 16th century. It differs from 
the Henry VII letter in some of its details, while in others there 
is a strong resemblance. The two styles were contempora- 
neous, however; the one in the present plate having been used 
more largely in France and other continental countries, while 
the Henry VII letter was peculiar to England. This letter, 
like that on the last plate, bears a strong resemblance to the 
medieval form. It is a more extended letter than the medieval 
letter. However, it j^ossesses prominently many of those char- 
acteristics that mark all art works of tiiis period. The trefoil, 
or fleur-de-lis, ornaments, on the middle strokes of the J5, £, F^ 



lO^=^OJ 



■ /^A^^ 25, /S93. 

Copyright. 1S99. by 
All 



^•T'tJiKV 



>BI P'O 




>H:jBT 


e-V^ t^^^ <JPl» ^^IL — ^ 

^^///l/ SMITH, CLASS N9 4-529. 

iery Engineer Company, 
eserved. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 101 

and i2, are similar to those on the Henry VII alphabet. The 
letters conform more closely to the Old Medieval Roman, in 
outline, than did those of the previous plate, the (7, D, and E 
being particularly more conventional. The ball is much larger 
in this letter than in the Henry VII alphabet, and there is no 
inclination or incision in the main lines of the stroke, in order 
to elaborate the outline. The letter itself possesses a combina- 
tion of foreign details that brings it down to a union of European 
styles. The vertical stroke is the same as of the Roman letter; 
the curved fine line, with a small dot, is of Flemish origin. 
The triangular spur in the center of the stroke is traceable to 
the old text, either German or Church Text, while the point on 
the top and bottom of the stroke and the terminations to the 
middle strokes of the E and F are purely of Gothic origin. 

2. These letters are all \^" in height, with f" between the 
lines, the lower line being ^" above the lower border line. 
The title is y^" high and f" above the top line of letters. 
The vertical stroke of the letter is \". The curved strokes are 
^ stroke wider. The curved fine line and dot, forming a spur- 
like termination, project 1 stroke from the letter. The pointed 
stroke at the top and bottom of the vertical strokes is a contin- 
uation of their outline, and projects about the thickness of the 
fine line above and below the top of the letter. The fine lines 
of the letter and those forming the spurs are about yV thick. 
The triangular spurs, though varying slightly in different 
letters, project about ^" . The small terminal dots are all 
2 fine lines in thickness, whereas the large dots, or balls, at the 
end of the J, E, etc., are all -^" or 1^ strokes in diameter. 
The curved fine lines of such letters as £', F, and L are similar 
in outline to the C and 0, and they thicken slightly as they 
approach the terminal ball to which they are tangent, and 
finish in a curved pointed spur, which projects but slightly 
beyond the outline of the ball. 

3. The student will draw these letters carefully, making all 
proportions and details not shown or described according to 
the Roman letter heretofore designed. In fact, in any case 
where the design of the letter is concerned, any uncertainty as 



102 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 



to form or proportion can safely be taken from the details 
governing this in the Roman alphabet, except in such alphabets 
as the Greek and Hebrew, and in the Old English, German, 
and Church Texts. 

' After completing the plate, the student will put the date in 
the lower left-hand corner, and the name and class letter and 
number in the lower right-hand corner. 



PLATE, TITLE: MOINOGRAMS. 

1 . The origin and date of letters woven together in the form 
of a monogram cannot be exactly located. It is of most ancient 
origin, however, the earliest record upon which we can place 
any reliability being about the 3d or 4th century. As far back 
as the time of Constantine, the monogram of the two Greek 
letters, shown in No. 2 of this plate, Avere carried on the ban- 
ners in warfare. This device, known as the laharum, may be 
classified more as an ideogram than a monogram, as it is two 
Greek letters, Chi and Rho, standing for the initials of Christ 
and Romans, and is always used in this form, and in this 
significance. 

2. The monogram shown in No. 1 is a text-hand letter, 
interwoven in a somewhat florid style, so as to be suitable 
for embroidery. The form observed at No. 3 is a backhand 
script used largely by engravers and coach painters. No. 4 is 
a straight-line design, more especially adaptable for work in 
gold, as gold lines appear so much heavier to the eye than any 
color, and the lines of this alone are particularly fine. In No. 5 
is shown a monogram laid in Old English letters, used to illus- 
trate the fact that, complicated as these letters are in themselves, 
they are, nevertheless, susceptible of being interwoven into a 
monogram. In No. 6 is shown the opposite of No. 4, an inter- 
lacing of heavy letters, and is usually applied to such form of 
monogram as will permit of the letters being drawn in outline. 
In No. 7 is an illuminated capital letter A surrounded by 
another letter that it does not even come in contact with, and 
though smaller than either the Cor /in the same monogram, 
it is the most prominent letter in it. No. 8 is a light- faced 




JUNE 25, /393. 



•ipyiKht. ISO'J. by The c 
All ri);h 




y Enshieer Company. 

rved. 



JOHN 5M/TH. CLASS N^ 4529. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 103 

letter combined to form a monogram suitable for a firm name — 
A. P. & Co. No. 9 is a design very elaborately carried out by 
an interweaving of three letters, showing how compact a design 
may be made. No. 10 is a design of the letters W W A, the 
second letter being reversed, which is permissible in some cases 
for this style of design. No. 11 is similar to No. 3, except the 
inclination of the letters is in the opposite direction. 

3. In executing this plate, the student will first study the 
letters and determine to Avhat style each particularly belongs. 
For instance, in No. 8 he will observe, in the light stroke and 
heavy fine line, a resemblance to the light French Roman letter. 
In No. 6 a resemblance to heavy Egyptian can be seen, M'hile 
No. 2 is essentially a Roman letter. It may be desirable for the 
student to divide each monogram of the plate into a number of 
squares (making very light pencil lines only), then draw his 
OAvn plate in a similar number of larger squares, and note the 
point in each square where the most lines of each letter occur, 
thereby outlining the whole. For instance, to draw monogram 
No. 1, the student can draw its bottom line 4f" above the 
lower border line. He can then make a rectangle, the left side 
of which is ^" from the left border line, the height of which is 
3", and the width S^". - If he then divides this rectangle into 
squares of ^" each, he will find that the extreme left-hand 
portion of the monogram touches the left-hand line in the fourth 
square above the bottom, as also does the right extreme curve 
touch the line in a corresponding location. 

4. By dividing the rectangle that encloses monogram No. 1, 
of the plate, into small squares, 14 horizontally and 12 verti- 
cally, he can proportion every detail of the monogram by 
locating its position in each square, and so locating it on his 
own plate. This he will do with No. 1, using this method in 
drawing each of the succeeding monograms, locating them on 
the plate according to their relative position on the original 
design, and drawing them all in outline, and after he has com- 
pleted his work cleaning all pencil marks and guide lines from 
the plate. Though it is desirable that as much of the work as 
possible be done free hand, it is perfectly permissible for the 



104 



THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 



§3 



student to use the triangle and ruling pen to execute any 
portion of this Avork, as it is essentially a work of precision, and 
from a practical standpoint is of no value unless neatly, accu- 
rately, and systematically carried out. Therefore, it is wise to 
draw each monogram separately on a piece of paper, where it 
can be altered and erased as many times as necessary to insure 
its perfection, after which, with the practice and experience 
gained, it may be reproduced upon the drawing plate. 

After completing the plate, the student will insert the date 
in its usual place, and the name and class letter and number in 
the lower right-hand corner. 



PIjATE, TITLE: INDEXES AND BANDS. 

1. The principal figures shown on this plate are right and 
left index hands, the proportions of which are here given in such 
simple terms that the student should have no difficulty in laying 
them out at any time from memory, by locating the principal 
points hereafter described. The back of the hand just touches 




the top border line, and the forefinger touches the left border 
line. In drawing the hand pointing to the right, the student 
can locate its outline midway between the upper hand and the 
lower border line. 

2. In proportioning the indexes, make the distance from the 
end of the first finger to the top and center of the knuckle of 
the second finger the same as from the latter point to the edge 
of the cuff, or, in other words, make a b equal to b c, as in tlie 



Jndcxes 




JUNE 25, /a 93. 



Copyright, 1899, by 
Al: 



m^Bands. 



.wyy^Wy^^ 



ODOODOOOD®!!®!!®! 




Colliery Engineer Company, 
his reserved. 



JO/i/V SM/TH. CLASS N9 4-529. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 105 

figure of the text; make the distance from a, the end of the 
finger nail, to g, the end of the thumb nail, equal to a h. This 
distance should be 3|^" on the student's drawing, which is also 
the distance from the top of cuff to the coat sleeve, or from c to i. 
The distance from dio e, g to/, c to /i, and A to i is 1|", as is 
also the distance from j to k. With these measurements fixed 
in mind, it will always be a simple matter to lay out a well- 
proportioned index hand. 

3. It is not always necessary that the index should be 
shaded, but where such is imperative, full strength should be 
given, where necessary, in order to bring out the drawing in 
relief. The lower side should always be shaded much stronger 
than the top, and the shade of the coat sleeve should fade out 
softly toward the edges, where it disappears into the white of the 
paper. Be careful not to show the joints of the finger and thumb 
too prominently, as they only require tlie mere suggestion. The 
right index is approximately the same as the left in every 
respect, but both should be practiced with equal attention, as it 
frequently happens that a designer is capable of drawing a right- 
hand index extremely well, and is utterly unable" to execute the 
same figure in the opposite direction. 

4. The bands on this plate are extremely simple and require 
very little explanation. They may be used as borders to tablets 
or signs, or, in some cases, may be stenciled and afterwards 
filled in, or, with slight variation, may be used as dividing parts 
in an inscription, provided suitable foliated or geometrical ends 
form their terminals. In laying them out, the top line of No. 1 
is but ^" below the upper border line, and the bottom line of 
No. 8 is ^" above the lower border line. Nos. 3, 4, and 5 are 
each y high, while Nos. 2, 6, and 7 are only f" high. No. 8 
is but ^" high. They should be drawn to reach to within \" of 
the right-hand border, and may be finished in an irregular 
manner when the motive is shown. The length of these 
bands is 3f". 

In drawing these, the student may use the T square and 
triangle to execute the straight lines, as well as the compasses 
for carrying out the curves, with the exception of Nos. 3, 5, 



106 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

and 6, which must be executed entirely freehand. Proportion 
eacli part carefully; no matter how simple, do not hurry the 
work, and when complete, shade the indexes and black in the 
borders like the original plate. 

Insert the date in the lower left-hand corner, and the name 
and class letter and number in the lower right-hand corner of 
the plate. 

PliATE, TITLE: ORNAMENTATION. 

1 . The subject of ornamentation is of great importance to the 
letterer and sign painter, and is deserving of much more consid- 
eration and study than is usually devoted to it. Ornament in 
itself is divided into two general classes — relief ornament and 
flat ornament — and although the varieties of each are almost 
endless, their characteristics, with regard to classification, are 
unmistakable. Relief ornament is usually representative of 
some natural form, such as foliage, leaves, flowers, etc., while 
flat ornament is more often composed of geometrical outlines, 
such as frets, woven bands, etc. In general practice, the 
former is called organic ornament and the latter inorganic 
ornament. When the organic ornamentation is used to express 
some particular idea or thing, such as music, literature, or art, 
it is said to be symbolic, and a classical or descriptive form of 
design is used. This may be either relief or flat ornament, 
or a combination of both. When ornamentation is applied 
to natural objects, or surfaces, it is usually termed decoration, 
and if raised from that surface so as to be in actual relief, it is 
termed alto-rilievo, mezzo-rilievo, or bas-relief, according to the 
circumstances. As a usual thing, only the brush is used as a 
means of ornamenting surfaces, although, for certain classes of 
work, pen design is often resorted to; but even in such works 
as engrossed resolutions and other ornamental writings, the 
ornament itself is usually executed with the brush. 

2. In the accompanying plate five examples are given that 
are representative of four different kinds of ornament. They 
are numbered with regard to their positions on the plate rather 
than in the progressive order in which they should be drawn. 




JUNL 25, /693. 



Copyright, 1899. by 7/( 
All r\ 



«)Wli©K). 




lliery Engitieer Company. 
■ reserved. 



JOHN SM/TH, CLASS N9 4529. 



§3 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. 107 

No. 1 is a design to be executed either in fiat or relief ornament. 
If painted, or drawn and shaded, as shown on the plate, it is an 
ornament representative of the relief, but it may be executed 
in actual relief by modeling in plaster or clay. The same may 
be said of No. 5, although the latter is a form of capital less 
often used in painted work than in actual modeling and carved 
work. Nos. 2 and 3 are a style of ornament used entirely on 
fiat work, and are purely geometrical in their construction. 
No. 4 represents the relief ornament, practically geometrical in 
its construction, but intended to appear with less constraint 
than a geometrical ornament, owing to the manner of its 
shading and finish. 

3. Before drawing any of these figures, it will be well to locate 
their positions on the plate, in order that each may be drawn 
separately without interfering with the other. The border 
line is drawn around the plate as usual, making a rectangle 
8^" X 15". Within this, No. 1 is designed by drawing a 
vertical line ^" to the right of the left-hand border, ^" below 
the upper border, and 3^" long. This line is made on the left 
side of a rectangle 9^" long, which encloses the figure. The 
vertical line at the left is divided into 7 equal parts by 6 hori- 
zontal lines, drawn the full length of the rectangle, and the 
horizontal line at the bottom is divided into 19 equal parts^ 
making rectangles -|" square throughout the figure. Repeat 
this operation on the copy, also, with light pencil lines, from 
points where marked on same. This system, used in reprodu- 
cing all drawings, will enable the student to locate every point 
and curve of the ornament in its proper position. To insure 
this, each horizontal and vertical line should be numbered con- 
secutively on the student's drawing to correspond with the plate. 

4. In drawing No. 2, a vertical line is drawn as a continuation 
of the arrow of No. 1, and a horizontal line is drawn H" above 
the border line. At the intersection of these lines a circle is 
drawn If" in diameter. The rest of the ornament is executed 
by means of the 30° and 60° triangle, with which the lozenge 
shape to the right is drawn, and the rest is executed freehand. 
To design No. 3, draw a vertical line Sf" from the left-hand 



108 THE FORMATION OF LETTERS. §3 

border, making it 3" long, ending IJ" above the lower border 
line. Through the vertical line draw a horizontal line 2f " from 
bottom border line, extending 2|" to the right and 5" to the 
left of the vertical. Describe the heavy arcs from points 1|-" 
above and below the horizontal on the vertical line, and inter- 
secting the horizontal line 1:^" from the vertical line. All 
curved lines in the center of the figure are parallel to one or 
the other of these arcs. On the intersecting lines of the right 
or left are the combinations of straight lines and similar arcs. 

5. The wreath and torch, shown in No. 4, is designed by first 
drawing a circle y\" in diameter, the center of which is 1|" to 
the left of the right border line and ^2,^^" below the upper 
border line. Within this a circle 2|f" in diameter is drawn, 
with its center ^" above the center of the first circle, making its 
top tangent to the top of the former, and a third circle 3^" in 
diameter, with its center ^" below that of the first, drawn. To 
locate the principal points of the drawing, draw a vertical line 
through the foci or centers of the circles of which the middle 
point is the bottom point of the ornamental center of the torch; 
the width of the top of torch is 1^", the flame reaching to top 
margin line. Having drawn the circles giving the center and 
outline of wreath, the further details may easil}' be drawn and 
proportioned with the eye. 

6. In drawing No. 5, its vertical center line is directly under 
the center line of the torch in No. 4, and extends 3:^" above the 
lower border line, and the curve at the top of the column is 
drawn with a radius of 5|-". The width of the column proper 
is ly. The extreme width of the capital at the top is 3", and 
is '^jq" high at the center. 

The student will carefully outline all of these figures as 
directed, blacking in such portions as are shown blacked in, and 
carefully shading, by means of curved parallel lines, such 
portions of the ornament as are herewith shown shaded. He 
will then put the date in the lower left-hand corner, and the 
name and the class letter and number in the lower right-hand 
corner of the plate. 



A SERIES 



OF 



QUESTIONS AND EXAMPLES 

Relating to the Subjects 
Treated of in this Volume. 



It will be noticed that the questions and examples con- 
tained in the following' pages are divided into sections cor- 
responding to the sections of the text of the preceding 
pages, so that each section has a headline which is the same 
as the headline of the section to which the questions refer. 
No attempt should be made to answer any questions or to 
work any examples until the corresponding part of the text 
has been carefully studied. 



Elements of Lettering. 



EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 

(1) (a) What name is given to the earliest form of 
writing? (/>) By whom was it used? 

(2) Wliat are "rustic" letters? 

(3) Name two styles of letters that came into existence 
prior to the 15th century. 

(4) What are "illuminated" letters? 

(5) What is meant by the term elongating? 

(6) What class of people were skilful in the art of letter- 
ing during the period immediately preceding the 15th century? 

(7) What is meant by the term interlacing? 

(8) On what materials can transparent water color be used 
to the best advantage? 

(9) What is meant Ijy a "part panel"? 

(10) What is the "stroke" of a letter? 

(11) What is meant by tlie term background? 

(12) What are "cut-in" letters? 

(13) On what side of the letter should the shade be 
placed ? 

(14) (tt) What is a "background stencil"? (6) How 
does this differ from the regular letter stencil? 

(15) What is meant by the term ^e/e.§6'0]9i7ir/ f 

(16) What two forms of numerals are used in modern 
lettering? 

(17) What material is most suitable for making stencil 
patterns ? 

(18) For what special class of work are tin-foil stencils 
used? 

(19) What style of brush is best adapted for use in 

stenciling? 

n 

For notice of copyright, see page immediately follr)\ving the title page. 



2 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

(20) Wliat styles of letters are best adapted for illuminated 
capitals ? 

(21) In cutting stencil patterns, what method is safest to 
follow in order to avoid the possibility of cutting off ties? 

(22) How is the design for the second stencil placed on the 
first to insure accuracy? 

(23) What alphabet is the mother of all modern styles 
of Avriting? 

(24) About how many signs may be stenciled before the 
stencil pattern should be cleaned? 

(25) On what i>art of the letter should the highlight be 
placed ? 

(26) How was the letter W expressed when first intro- 
duced into the alphabet? 

(27) When letters are placed on an inclined panel, what 
position should they be given ? 

(28) ^^'hat is meant by the term condensing f 

(29) What is the difference between mechanical and free- 
hand lettering ? 

(30) What are the "ties" in stencil patterns? 

(31) In what way did the invention of the printing press 
directly benefit the art of writing? 

(32) On what angle should the shade of the letter be placed? 

(33) Of what importance is letter-face shading? 

(34) W'hat is the "spur" of a letter? 

(35) Where would vou ])lac'e the possessive apostrophe in 
the following: "Mens and Boys Clothing"? 

(36) How is the block shade placed on a letter? 

(37) How many forms has the cast shadow? 

(38) What'are the three chief classifications of letters? 

(39) When are colors applied in their dry state? 

(40) Name some of the styles of letters known exclusively 
as "American writing." 

(41) For what purpose is the stencil pattern used? 



Lettering and Sign Painting. 

EXAMIIN A TION QUESTIONS. 

(1) At what angle sliould a lettering taljle be inclined? 

(2) Of what material are transparent signs usually made? 

(3) How is a design transferred to a brass plate for the 
purpose of embossing? 

(4) For what purpose are large wooden letters used? 

(5) How are parts of the brass plate protected where it 
is to ])e left unetched? 

(6) How are aluminum and gold bronze applied to a sized 
surface ? 

(7) What is a neutral color? 

(8) What is the priming coat? 

(9) What acid is used for etching brass plates? 

(10) For what purpose are metal letters used? 

(11) (a) How many compasses are necessary for use in 
sign painting? (h) Describe the largest. 

(12) What is flock? 

(13) In making letters one inch or under, what brush 
should be used? 

(14) What are the primary colors? 

(15) What is the principal use of the T square in sign 
painting? 

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



(16) What is the cause of a color creeping after being 
applied ? 

(17) How can a wire sign projecting from a building be 
made to read from opposite directions? 

(IS) AMiat should be the height of a lettering table? 

(19) What name is given to the long-hair brush used to 
pick, up the gold leaf? 

(20) Describe the transparent shade. 

(21) How is the penetrating quality of pitch destroyed 
in pine sign boards ? 

(22) What gauge of engraving brass is generally used for 
the embossing process? 

(23) From what oil is slow size made? 

(24) How is gold leaf prepared for use where the wind 
is too strong to use the tip? 

(25) How should lettering brushes be preserved from 
drying or hardening? 

(26) What are compo signs? 

(27) AVhat two general kinds of size are used for gilding 
on wood or metal? 

(28) What is meant by the term tint? 

(29) What is the most durable color when exposed to the 
elements ? 

(30) What is used as a backing for pearl filling to produce 
a solid letter? 

(31) What are the principal classes into which colors 
are divided? 

(32) What mixtures should be used for lettering on 
cardboard ? 



LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 



(33) What size is used for Etruscan gilding? 

(34) What is the spectrum shade? 

(35) When are colors in harmony in their combination? 

(36) What color is used in the mixture of size for gold? 

(37) What are rehef letters? 

(38) How is the asphaltum coating removed after the brass 
plate is taken from the etching bath? 

(39) What is a secondary color? 

(40) What is naeant by the term cold color f 

(41) How many brushes are recommended as necessary 
for practice work? 

(42) What acid is used for embossing on glass? 

(43) When are colors said to be in contrast ? 

(44) To what depth should the letters be etched in glass? 

(45) (a) What is a shade of a color? (6) How may 
this be produced? 

(46) How should cotton cloth be prepared before letters 
are applied? 

(47) What is meant by the term tvarm color? 

(48) What materials are used to fill letters etched in 
brass plates? 

(49) On what colors is the glaze shade used? 

(50) In embossed work, to what depth should the acid 
be allowed to eat the brass plate? 

(51) What w^ould be the result if a coat of paint w^ere 
placed over another before the first dried, one being a slow- 
drying and the other a quick-drying mixture? 



4 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. §2 

(52) What adhesive material is used in the preparation 
of gilding water size? 

(53) Name two semineutral colors. 

(54) How many methods are there of striping by means 
of a lettering brush ? 

(55) When is frosting on glass used as a ground for 
lettering ? 

(56) What is considered the least durable color? 

(57) How is a design that is to be gilded placed on a 
window glass? 

(58) What is the l)est protection against frost that may 
be applied to a finished letter on glass ? 

(59) What is smalt f 

(60) What mixture of colors produces j^urple? 



INDEX. 



All items in this Index refer first to the section number,— which is printed on the inside 
edges of the headlines and is preceded bv the printers' section mark g,— and then to the page 
number. Thus, Acid, Hydrofluoric 2 29, means find the paper having § 2 on the headlines 
and then find page 29. 



A. Sec. 

Acid, Hydrofluoric 2 

Testing of 2 

" Nitric 2 

" Material used for resisting 2 

" Use of 2 

Alphabet, ancient Roman, Modifi- 
cation of 1 

" antique Egyptian, Modi- 
fication of 1 

' ' antique half block. Modi- 
fication of 1 

" Boston Roman, Modifi- 
cation of 1 

" Flemish 1 

" French Roman, Modifi- 
cation of 1 

Greek 1 

" Hebrew 1 

" Latin 1 

" " Roman, Modifica- 
tion of 1 

" Names of letters of Greek 3 
" Names of letters of 

Hebrew 3 

" Phenician 1 

" Samaritan 1 

Alphabets 3 

Altitude of triangles 1 

Ancient Roman alphabet, Modifi- 
cation of 1 

Angular pediment 1 

Antique Egyptian 3 

" " . alphabet, Modifi- 
cation of 1 

" " letters. Inking 3 
" " letters, Lower- 
case 3 

" " letters. Peculiari- 
ties ol 3 



Page. 
29 
29 
28 
26 
28 

57 

57 

59 

59 
61 

61 
7 
4 



Sec. 

Antique Egyptian (hea\T) 2 

" " (heavy) letters. 

Inking 3 

" " (heavy) letters, 

Numerals of 3 

(light) 3 

" " (light) letters, 

Directions for 

drawing 3 

" " (light) letters, 

Inking 3 

" " (light) letters. 

Lower-case 3 

" " (light) letters, 

Numerals of 3 

" half block 3 

" " " Modification of 1 

" " " letters. Inking 3 

" " " Lower-case 3 

Apostrophe, Origin of 1 

Appearance of spacing 1 

Arabic numerals 1 

Arc 1 

Architects' pen stroke 3 

" pen stroke letters, Di- 
rections for drawing 3 
" pen stroke letters, Ini- 
tial 3 

" pen stroke letters, Ink- 
ing 3 

" pen stroke letters, Pecu- 
liarities of 3 

B. 

Background 1 

" stencils 1 

Beeswax dam 2 

Beveled shading 1 

Black cardboard, Lettering on 2 



Page. 
26 

29 

29 
21 



22 



87 



IX 



INDEX. 



Sec. 

lUook 1 

shade 1 

lioston Roman alphabet, Modifica- 
tion of 1 

Brass, Etching 2 

" plates, Embossing 2 

Brick or stone panels. Lettering on 2 

Brushes, Camcrs-hair 2 

Red-sable 2 

" required 2 

S\van-(iuill 2 

Brush work 2 

C. 

Camel's-hair brushes 2 

Card black 2 

Cardboard, Lettering on 2 

Card work 1 

Carriage- or piano-body finish 2 

Cast shadow 1 

Church text S 

" letters, Directions for 

drawing. 3 

" " " Inking 3 

" " Lower-case 3 

" " " Inking 3 

" " Peculiarities of 3 

Circle, Diameter of. 1 

Radius of 1 

Circles 1 

Circular arc 1 

Classiticiition of colors 2 

" letters 1 

" 1 

Cleaning stencils 1 

the plate 2 

Colon 1 

Colors, Classification of 2 

Drying (lualities of 2 

" Durability of 2 

" nandling of 2 

" Neutral 2 

" Preparation of 2 

" Primary 2 

" Secondary 2 

" Semiucutral 2 

Warm and cold 2 

Comma 1 

Compasses 1 

Component parts of a letter 1 

Compo signs 2 

Condensed letter, Example of 1 

Condensing 1 

1 

Contrast 2 

and harmony 2 



Page. 
13 
23 

59 
27 
20 
34 



57 
61 
00 
61 
57 
53 
53 
53 
54 
10 

29 
51 
28 
19 
10 
12 
13 
12 
10 
32 
10 
10 
11 
11 
IS 
07 
13 
36 
36 
14 
35 
11 
12 



Correct and incorrect spacing 

Cuneiform writing 

Curve 

Cut-in letters, Points to be observed 



So 



" " Useof. 

Cutting stencils 

Cyma 



Dam, Beeswax 2 

Dash 

Decorations, Ecclesiastical 

Defects of surface 

Definition of circle 

" " triangle 

Designing in.scriptions 

Scope and importance of 

Diameter of circle 

Ditto marks 

Double shade 2 

Draftsmen's style letters, Direc- 
tions for dravv- 



. Page 

14 

3 

54 

28 
27 
49 
14 



letters. Inking 
letters, Peculiar- 
ities of. 3 



" styles 

Drawing board 

ink 

" pen, To sharpen 

" the letters 

Drying qualities of colors .. 
Durability of colors 



3 


90 


3 


93 


3 


89 


3 


89 


1 


63 


1 


72 


1 


73 


1 


12 


2 


12 


2 


13 



E. 

Ecclesiastical decorations 1 

Eftects in lettering 1 

produced by letter-face 

lighting and shading 1 

Egyptian 3 

" half block and French 

Roman 1 

letters. Inking 3 

3 
3 
1 
1 
1 
1 



" " Lower-case 

" " Peculiarities of... 

Ellipse 

Elliptical and round panels 

Elongating 



Embossing brass plates 2 

on glass 2 

Enamel white finish 2 

Enameled cloth, Lettering on 2 

English, Old 1 



INDEX. 



XI 



Sec. Page. 

Engrossing 3 84 

" letters, Directions for 

drawing 3 80 

Inking 3 86 

" " Lower-case 3 86 

" " Peculiarities of 3 84 

" " Pens used for 3 84 

Equilateral triangles 1 53 

Etching brass 2 27 

Etruscan gilding 2 25 

Example of condensed letter 1 36 

Exclamation point 1 20 

Experience and theory 2 1 

F. 

Face 1 13 

" of letter, Lighting and sha- 
ding 1 25 

" " " Treatment of 1 ■ 25 

" ornamentation 1 31 

Figures, Geometrical 1 52 

Filling etched letters 2 28 

in and outlining 1 38 

Fine line 1 13 

Finish, Carriage- or piano-body 2 17 

Finishing coat 2 25 

Flat ornament 3 106 

Flemish alphabet 1 61 

Flock 2 15 

Formation of letters 3 1 

Forms, Ornamental 1 30 

Foundation work 2 16 

Freehand and instrumental draw- 
ing, Definitions of 1 12 

and mechanical lettering 1 12 

French enamel white finish 2 16 

Roman 3 30 

" " Egyptian, and half 

block 1 10 

Modification of 1 61 

" " letters. Directions 

for drawing 3 30 

" " letters. Inking 3 33 

" " letters, Numerals of 3 32 
" " letters, Peculiari- 
ties of 3 30 

(heavy) 3 37 

" " (heavy) letters, Di- 

rections for 

drawing 3 37 

" " (heavy) letters. 

Inking 3 39 

" " (heavy) letters, 

Peculiarities of 3 37 

(light) 3 33 



Sec. Page. 
French Roman (light) letters, 

Cymain 3 34 

(light) letters. Di- 
rections for 

drawing 3 34 

" " (light) letters. Ink- 
ing 3 30 

" " (light) letters, Nu- 

meralsof. 3 36 

Frosting on glass 2 17 

Full block 3 1 

" " and Roman 1 16 

" " letters. Corners of 3 3 

" " " Directions for 

drawing 3 1 

" " " Inking of lines 

of 3 5 

" " Irregularities in 3 3 

" " " Numerals of 3 4 

" " " Proportions of ... 3 1 

Fundamental styles i 2 

" styles. Modifications 

of 1 56 

G. 

Gable i 52 

Gas-pipe signs 2 36 

General rules 1 10 

Geometrical figures 1 52 

German text , 3 51 

" letters. Directions for 

drawing 3 51 

Inking 3 56 

" " Lower-case 3 56 

" Origin of 3 51 

" " Peculiarities of 3 51 

Gilding 2 21 

" Etruscan 2 25 

" Materials necessary for 2 21 

" Method of procedure in 2 23 

" on glass 2 21 

" " wood or metal 2 23 

" Outside 2 24 

" size 2 18 

" water 2 18 

Glass, Embossing on 2 29 

Frosting on 2 17 

" Gilding on 2 21 

" Lettering on 2 34 

signs, Unlimited 2 38 

Glaze shading : 2 31 

Gold leaf 2 21 

Gothic 3 61 

letters, Directions for draw- 
ing 3 61 



INDEX. 



Sec. Page. 

Gothic letters, Inking 3 CO 

" " Lower-case 3 66 

" " Numerals of 3 65 

" " Peculiarities of 3 61 

Greek alphabet 1 7 

" Names of letters of 3 96 

Grotesque letters .< 1 31 

Ground finishes 2 13 

Grounds for stenciled letters 1 -48 

" Variegated 1 48 

2 15 

H. 

Half block 3 6 

Antique 3 9 

" •' Egyptian, and French 

Roman 1 16 

letters, Inking 3 8 

" ■• '• Directions for 

drawing 3 7 

" " " Lower-case 3 8 

" " " Peculiarities of 

Q and R in 3 7 

Handling of colors 2 12 

Hands. Position of 2 6 

Hanging a sign 2 38 

Harmony and contrast 2, 12 

Hea^Tliighlight 1 26 

Hebrew 3 93 

alphabet 1 4 

" '■ Names of letters 

of 3 93 

letters. Antiquity of 3 93 

D i r e c t i o n s for 

drawing 8 94 

" . " Inking 3 95 

" " Names of 3 94 

" " Peculiarities of. 3 93 

Henry VII 3 98 

" " letters, Direct ions for 

drawing 3 99 

" " " Exceptional 

character of 3 99 

" " " Inking 3 100 

" " " Modern use of 3 98 

Origin of 3 98 

" " Peculiarities of 3 99 

Heraldic shield 1 35 

Highlight ...: 1 27 

Heavy 1 20 

History and general use of illumi- 
nated capitals 1 32 

of alphabet 1 2 

How work should be sent 1 74 

Hydrofluoric acid 2 29 

Hyphen 1 21 



I. Sec 

Ideograms i 

Illuminated capitals, History and 

general use of l 

Importance and scope of designing 1 

" of spacing l 

Improvised appliances for sign 

painting 2 

Incorrect spacing l 

Indexes and bands 3 

" " " Directions for 

drawing 3 

" " " Inking 3 

" " " Proportions of 3 

" " " Shading 3 

Inking in 

Inscription designing 

Instrumental and freehand draw- 
ing. Definitions of 

Interlacing 



Interrogation point 

Irregular-surface lettering 

Isosceles trian,gles 

Italic script 3 

" " letters, Directions for 

drawing 3 

" " " Inking 3 

" " " Numerals 3 

" " " Peculiarities of 3 



Latin alphabet 

Roman alphabet. Modifica- 
tion of 

Left-side shading 

Letter-face lighting and shading, 
Effects produced by 

" " ornamentation 

" shading 

" stencils 

Letters, Classification of 

" Component parts of 

" Condensing '.:. 

" Cutting in 

" Elongating 

" Formation of 3 

" Grotesque 1 

" Lower-case 3 

" Mechanical 3 

Metal 2 

" Ornamental 1 

" Proportion of , 1 

Relief 2 

" " ornament 1 

" Spacing of 1 

Wooden 2 



Pdf/C. 

3 

32 
39 
14 

4 

14 

104 

104 
100 
104 
105 
71 
40 

12 
35 
37 
20 
28 
52 
71 



INDEX. 



Xlll 



Sec. Page. 

Lettering, Effects in 1 35 

Freehand and mechan- 
ical 1 12 

" Irregular-surface 1 28 

" Mechanical 1 62 

" on black cardboard 2 33 

" " brick and stone panels 2 34 

" " cardboard 2 33 

" " cotton sheeting 2 32 

" " enameled cloth 2 33 

" glass 2 34 

" " plastered surfaces 2 34 

" " plates 1 75 

" silk 2 33 

Light, Reflected 1 42 

Lighting and shading, Letter-face 1 25 

Loop 1 55 

Lower-case letters 3 6 

" " Roman 3 48 

" " Roman letters, Direc- 
tions for drawing. 3 49 

" " Roman letters, Inking 3 51 
" " Roman letters. Numer- 
als of 3 51 

" " Peculiarities of 3 48 

M. 

Marks, Ditto 1 22 

" Quotation 1 21 

Material for stencils 1 49 

" necessary for gilding 2 21 

Materials used for resisting acid 2 26 

Mechanical and freehand lettering 1 12 

" lettering 1 62 

letters 3 2 

styles 1 12 

Medieval Roman 3 45 

" " letters, Direc'-. ions 

for drawing 3 45 

" " letters. Inking.... 3 48 
" " letters, Numerals 

of. 3 47 

" " letters. Peculiari- 
ties of 3 45 

Medium-slow size 2 20 

Metal, Gilding on 2 23 

letters 2 35 

Method of applying smalt 2 14 

" " describing an ellipse 1 55 

Methods used in sign painting 2 3 

Modern styles 1 10 

Modifications of ancient Roman 

alphabet 1 57 

" " antique Egyp- 
tian alphabet 1 57 



Sec. Page. 
Modifications of antique half 

block 1 59 

" " Boston Roman 

alphabet 1 59 

" " French Roman 

alphabet 1 61 

" " fundamental 

styles 1 56 

" " Latin Roman al- 
phabet 1 57 

Monograms 3 102 

" Directions for drawing 3 102 

Inking 3 104 

Origin of 3 102 

" Peculiarities of 3 102 

N. 

Neutral colors 2 10 

Numerals, Arabic 1 4 

" Roman 1 4 

O. 

Oil gilding, Size for 2 19 

Old English 1 9 

3 78 

" " letters, Directions for 

drawing 3 79 

" Inking 3 U 

" " " Lower-case 3 83 

" " " Peculiarities of 3 78 

Origin of the apostrophe 1 18 

Ornament, Flat 3 106 

Relief 3 106 

Ornamental curves 1 54 

" figures, Directions for 

drawing 3 107 

" " Inking 3 108 

" forms 1 30 

letters 1 29 

Ornamentation 3 106 

" Application of 3 106 

" Importance of 3 106 

Inking 3 108 

" Letter-face 1 31 

Outlining and filling in 1 38 

Outside gilding. 2 24 

Ox-hair writers 2 5 

P. 

Panels 1 42 

" Elliptical and round 1 44 

" Part 1 44 

" Rectangular 1 42 

Rococo 1 44 



XIV 



INDEX. 



Sec. 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 



Paper 

and pencils 

stencils 

Parenthesis 

Part panels 

Patterns, Stencil 

Pearl filling 

Pediment, Angular 

Pencils and paper 

Pen, Ruling 

Period 

Phenician alphabet 

Plastered surfaces, Lettering on 2 

Plate, Title: Antique Egyptian 3 

Antique Egyptian 

(heavy) 3 

A ntique Egyptian 

(light) 3 

" Antique half block 3 

" Architects' pen stroke 3 

" Church text 3 

" Draftsmen's styles 3 

" Egyptian 3 

" Engrossing 3 

" French Roman 3 

" " " (heavy) 3 

(light) 3 

Full block 3 

" German text 3 

" Gothic 3 

Half block 3 

" Hebrew 3 

Henry VII 3 

" Indexes and bands 3 

Italic script 3 

" Lower-case Roman 3 

" Medieval Roman 3 

" Monograms 3 

Old English 3 

" Ornamentation 3 

" Railroad block 3 

Renaissance 3 

" Roman (Boston) 3 

(New York) 3 

Round full block 3 

" Shippers' box marking 3 

10th century 3 

" Spencerian script 3 

" Uncial Greek 3 

Position of hands 2 

Practice and material 2 

Preliminary directions for lettering 

plates 1 

Preparation of colors 2 

" surfaces 2 

Primary colors 2 



Page. 

3 
70 
49 
21 
44 
48 
24 
52 
70 
71 
19 

6 
34 
19 



21 
9 
87 
57 
89 
17 
34 
30 
37 
33 
1 
51 
61 
6 
93 
98 

104 
71 
48 
45 

102 
78 

106 
10 

43 

40 

15 

75 

100 

07 

95 

6 

2 

75 
32 
16 
10 



Sec. Page. 

Proportion of letters 1 46 

Punctuation 1 18 

Purpose of a drawing 1 12 

" " stencils 1 48 

Q. 

Qualifications necessary for sign 

painting 2 1 

Quick size 2 19 

Quotation marks 1 21 

R. 

Radius of circle 1 53 

Railroad block 3 10 

" " letters, Directions 

for drawing 3 11 

" " letters. Inking 3 15 

" " letters, Peculiari- 
ties of 3 10 

Rectangular panels 1 42 

Red-sable brushes 2 5 

Reflected light 1 42 

Reliefletters 2 34 

" ornament 3 106 

letters 1 30 

" shade 1 24 

Renaissance 1 8 

3 73 

" letters, Bradley text 3 74 
" . " Directions for 

drawing .... 3 74 

" " German text 3 74 

" " Lower-case 3 74 

" " Inking 3 75 

" " Peculiarities 

of 3 73 

Results Of 1 8 

Ribbons 1 40 

Right-angled triangle 1 53 

Rococo panels 1 44 

Roman and full block 1 Ki 

" (Boston) 3 43 

" (Boston) letters. Directions 

for drawing 3 44 

" (Boston) letters. Early forms 

of 3 44 

" (Boston) letters, Inking 3 45 

" (Boston) letters, Numerals 

of 3 45 

" (Boston) letters. Peculiari- 
ties of 3 43 

" (New York) 3 40 

" (New York) letters, Direc- 
tions for drawing 3 40 

" (New York) letters, Inking 3 43 



INDEX. 



Sec. Page. 
Roman (New York) letters, Nu- 
merals of 3 42 

(New York) letters, Peculi- 
arities of 3 40 

" numerals 1 4 

Round and elliptical panels 1 44 

•' full block 3 15 

" " " letters, Inking 3 17 

" " " letters, Numerals 

of 3 17 

" " letters, Peculiari- 
ties of 3 15 

Rules for punctuation 1 19 

" General 1 10 

Ruling pen 1 71 

S. 

Samaritan alphabet 1 5 

Scope and importance of designing 1 39 

" of sign painting 2 1 

Script, Application of the term 3 67 

Scroll 1 55 

Secondary colors 2 10 

Semicolon 1 19 

Semineutral colors 2 11 

Sending work 1 74 

Shade 1 13 

" Block 1 23 

" Relief 1 24 

Shades 2 11 

Shading 1 22 

Beveled 1 26 

Glaze 2 31 

letters 2 30 

" ribbons 1 41 

the left side 1 22 

" Transparent 2 30 

Shadow, Cast 1 23 

Sheet-glass signs 2 22 

Sheeting, Lettering on 2 32 

Shield, Heraldic 1 35 

Shippers' box marking 3 75 

" " marking letters, 

Brushes used for.... 3 76 
" " marking letters. 
Directions for 

drawing 3 76 

" " marking letters, Ink- 
ing 3 78 

" " marking letters, 

Lower-case 3 77 

" " marking letters, Pe- 
culiarities of 3 75 

" " marking letters. Uses 

of 3 75 



Sec. Page. 



Sixteenth century letters, Directions 

for drawing 3 

" " letters. Inking 3 
" " letters. Origin of 3 
" " letters, Peculiari- 
ties of 3 

Show-card work ' 1 

Sign painting. Improvised appli- 
ances for 2 

" " Methods used in 2 
" " Qualifications nec- 
essary for 2 

" " Scope of subject of 2 

" " tools 2 

" stenciling l 

" stencils 1 

Signs, Compo 2 

" Gas-pipe 2 

" on brick walls 2 

Sheet-glass 2 

" Transparent 2 

" Wire 2 

Silk, Lettering on 2 

Simple combinations 1 

Size for gilding 2 

" " oil gilding 2 

" Medium-slow 2 

" Quick 2 

Slow size 2 

Smalting, Method of application of 2 

Spacing, Appearance of 1 

" Correct and incorrect 1 

" Importance of 1 

" ofletters 1 

Spencerian script 3 

" " letters. Directions 

for drawing 3 

letters. Inking 3 
" " letters. Lower- 
case 3 

" " letters. Peculiari- 
ties of 3 

" " letters. Spacing of 3 

" " letters. Variations 

of 3 

Spur 

Stencil, Background 

" cutting 

" patterns 

" signs 

Stencils, Cleaning 

" Materials for 

" Paper 

" Purpose of 

Tin-foil 

Stenciled letters, Grounds for 



101 
102 
100 

100 
33 

4 
3 

1 
1 
3 
51 
51 
36 
36 
37 
22 
37 
36 
33 
39 
18 
19 
20 
19 
19 
14 
17 
14 
14 
14 
67 



67 
70 

70 
13 

50 
49 
48 
51 
51 
49 
49 
48 
49 
48 



XVI 



liNDKX. 



Sec. 

Striping 2 

Sti\>ke 1 

t^tyles. Fundamental 1 

Moohrttueal 1 

Modern 1 

" Variations of 1 

Snpertine brown-sahle writers 2 

Surl'aee, DelVets of 2 

rrej>anition of 2 

Swan-nuill brushes 2 

T. 

Tclesoopinjr 1 

1 

Testius; hydrotluorio acid "J 

Tin-toil steneils 1 

Tools necessary lor sign painting 2 

To sharpen drawiiig pen 1 

Transparent shading 2 

signs 2 

Treatment of faee of letter 1 

Triangles 1 

1 

Altitude of 1 

IH'tinilionof 1 

" K>iuilateral 1 

" Isoseeles 1 

Kight-angled 1 

T square 1 



9 
IS 

12 

10 
tU 

5 
10 
1(". 

5 



49 



U. f?fo. 

I'neial cireek 3 

letters, Directions for 

ilrawing S 

Inking 3 

" ■' " Lower-case S 
" " " Peculiarities 

of 8 

Tuderscoro 1 

Vnlimited glass signs 2 

l^pper-case letters S 

Use of acids 2 

" " the comma 1 

" " water colors 1 

V. 

Variations of styles 1 

Variegated grounds 1 

Vowels 1 

^y. 

Warm and cold colors 2 

Water colors 1 

White finish, French enamel 2 

Width 1 

Wire signs 2 

Wooden letters 2 

Wood or metal, Gilding on 2 

Writers, Oxhair 2 

aupcriiue browu-Sttblo 2 



PnQf. 
96 

97 

95 
22 
SS 
(■> 
2vS 
19 
SS 



4 



NfiV -1 i'^'ift 



